Direct Experience in Nature Is Critical and Diminishing
Nature is important to children's development in every major way—intellectually, emotionally, socially, spiritually, and physically. In his newest book, Building for Life: Designing and Understanding the Human-Nature Connection (Island Press, 2005), Dr. Stephen R. Kellert of Yale University devotes a chapter to the subject of "Nature and Childhood Development." Combining his original research with well-documented references to the research of others, this chapter is a powerful synthesis of what we know, and what we do not know, about the importance of nature to children's healthy development. Kellert states, "Play in nature, particularly during the critical period of middle childhood, appears to be an especially important time for developing the capacities for creativity, problem-solving, and emotional and intellectual development." He includes research to indicate optimal learning opportunities at age-appropriate times and differentiates between indirect, vicarious, and direct experiences with nature — with the latter less and less available to children. He urges designers, developers, educators, political leaders and citizens throughout society to make changes in our modern built environments to provide children with positive contact with nature—where children live, play, and learn. (Original Research and Synthesis)Kellert, Stephen R. "Nature and Childhood Development." In Building for Life: Designing and Understanding the Human-Nature Connection. Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2005.
Unstructured Free Play Brings Cognitive, Social and Health Benefits to Children
Unstructured free play in the out-of-doors brings a host of benefits to children—from being smarter to more cooperative to healthier overall. This well-documented article by two physicians builds a strong case for the importance of unstructured free play in the out-of-doors for all age groups, and especially young children. While concerned about the “obesity epidemic” in young children, the authors say that the health benefits from outdoor play are only one aspect of the overall benefits. They suggest that the concept of “play” is more compelling and inviting to most adult caregivers, parents and guardians than “exercise.” The authors cite cognitive benefits from play in nature, including creativity, problem-solving, focus and self-discipline. Social benefits include cooperation, flexibility, and self-awareness. Emotional benefits include stress reduction, reduced aggression and increased happiness. Children will be smarter, better able to get along with others, healthier and happier when they have regular opportunities for free and unstructured play in the out-of-doors. (Synthesis)Burdette, Hillary L., M.D., M.S.; and Robert C. Whitaker, M.D, M.P.H. "Resurrecting Free Play in Young Children: Looking Beyond Fitness and Fatness to Attention, Affiliation and Affect." © 2005 American Medical Association.
Volume One – February 2007
This C&NN resource includes an executive summary of each research report; full citation; and a PDF if available, or a link to each study in its entirety, or contact information if the study is not available online. Some are reports of individual studies in the form of original research; others are a synthesis of reports of various studies. While this is a listing of a sample of outstanding studies, the listing is not intended to be exhaustive. We welcome recommendations for additional research to include.Annotated Bibliography by Cheryl Charles, Ph.D., President, Children & Nature Network
Direct Experience and Mentoring Are Key Elements
The focus of this recent research from Dr. Louise Chawla is on those factors that contribute to individuals choosing to take action to benefit the environment when they are adults. This is a reprise of earlier research by Dr. Chawla in the 1990s (Journal of Environmental Education, 1998, 1999). Positive, direct experience in the out-of-doors and being taken outdoors by someone close to the child—a parent, grand parent, or other trusted guardian—are the two most significant contributing factors. While lifelong activism is the primary focus of Dr. Chawla's inquiry, as reported in this article, her well-documented study includes citations and explanations of many additional benefits to children from early experiences in the out-of-doors. Creativity, physical competence, social skills, environmental knowledge, confidence, and problem-solving ability are among those benefits to children's development. Given the important role of adults in taking children into the out-of-doors, Dr. Chawla is specific about the attributes of the experiences those adult mentors provide. She states, the "adults gave attention to their surroundings in four ways—care for the land as a limited resource essential for family identity and well-being; a disapproval of destructive practices; simple pleasure at being out in nature; and a fascination with the details of other living things and elements of the earth and sky." Modeling those attributes while in the presence of the child does even more. As Dr. Chawla states, "The very fact that a parent or grandparent chose to take the child with them to a place where they themselves found fascination and pleasure, to share what engaged them there, suggests not only care for the natural world, but, equally, care for the child." (Original Research and Synthesis)Chawla, Louise. "Learning to Love the Natural World Enough to Protect It," in Barn nr. 2 2006:57-58. © 2006 Norsk senter for barneforskning. Barn is a quarterly published by the Norwegian Centre for Child Research at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway. This article was written for a special issue in honor of the Norwegian child psychologist, Per Olav Tiller.
Contact with Nature Is Important for Children
Andrea Faber Taylor and Frances E. Kuo have contributed important research to the understanding of the impact of nature on people's lives, and specifically to the well-being of children. This particular article is a recent review of the literature and establishes what is known, and what is still missing, about the effects of contact with nature on children's lives. While the evidence is growing, this article is an important call to action for further research.Taylor, Andrea Faber; and Frances E. Kuo. "Is Contact with Nature Important for Healthy Child Development? State of the Evidence." In Spencer, C. & Blades, M. (Eds.), Children and Their Environments: Learning, Using and Designing Spaces. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Nature-Smart Kids Get Higher Test Scores
The American Institutes for Research® conducted a study, submitted to the California Department of Education, of the impact of weeklong residential outdoor education programs. The focus was on at-risk youth, 56% of whom reported never having spent time in a natural setting. Comparing the impact on students who experienced the outdoor education program versus those in a control group who had not had the outdoor learning experience, results were statistically significant. Major findings were: 27% increase in measured mastery of science concepts; enhanced cooperation and conflict resolution skills; gains in self-esteem; gains in positive environmental behavior; and gains in problem-solving, motivation to learn, and classroom behavior.(Original research)"Effects of Outdoor Education Programs for Children in California." American Institutes for Research: Palo Alto, CA: 2005. Available on the Sierra Club web site.
School Achievement Is Enhanced When Curricula Are Environment Based
Sponsored by many state departments of education, this 1998 study has an important place in documenting the enhanced school achievement of youth who experience school curricula in which the environment is the principal organizer. This study, completed in 1998, was followed by two related studies, conducted by the State Education and Environment Roundtable (SEER), both of which produced results consistent with this original study. (Original Research)Lieberman, Gerald A.; and Linda L. Hoody. "Closing the Achievement Gap: Using the Environment as an Integrating Context for Learning." SEER: Poway, CA, 1998. "California Student Assessment Project." SEER: Poway, CA, 2000. Both of these studies are available at www.seer.org. The third and most recent of the SEER studies we are featuring is described below.
More Evidence Corroborates Environment-Based School Achievement
This study provides further evidence to support the positive benefits on school achievement from environment-based study in schools. This 2005 study is consistent with the results of two precursor studies, cited above, "Closing the Achievement Gap" (1998) and the "California Student Assessment Project" (2000). Students in environment-based instructional programs score as well or better on standardized measures in four basic subject areas—reading, math, language and spelling. The environment-based programs also foster cooperative learning and civic responsibility, using the natural characteristics of the school grounds and local community as the foundational framework for the curricula. While the benefits are significant, this study also provides evidence for the challenges inherent in maintaining environment-based curricula in schools on a longitudinal basis, despite substantial evidence of benefits.(Original Research)"California Student Assessment Project Phase Two: The Effects of Environment-Based Education on Student Achievement." SEER: Poway, CA, 2005. Available on the Web site of the State Education and Environment Roundtable (SEER) at www.seer.org.
Outdoor Experience for Teens Has Self-Reported Life-Changing Results
A classic 1998 study by Dr. Stephen R. Kellert of Yale University, with assistance from Victoria Derr, remains the most comprehensive research to date to examine the effects on teenage youth of participation in outdoor education, specifically wilderness-based programs. Subjects were participants in programs offered through three old and well-respected organizations: the Student Conservation Association (SCA), the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS), and Outward Bound. The researchers used quantitative and qualitative research techniques, and parallel use of both retrospective and longitudinal study techniques. Results indicate that the majority of respondents found this outdoor experience to be "one of the best in their life." Participants report positive effects on their personal, intellectual, and, in some cases, spiritual development. Pronounced results were found in enhanced self-esteem, self-confidence, independence, autonomy and initiative. These impacts occurred among both the retrospective and longitudinal respondents in this study, which means, in part, that these results persisted through many years.Kellert, Stephen R.; with the assistance of Victoria Derr. "A National Study of Outdoor Wilderness Experience." New Haven: Yale University, 1998. Available at the National Outdoor Leadership School web site.
Green School Grounds Foster Achievement and Responsibility
There are numerous studies that document the benefits to students from school grounds that are ecologically diverse and include free-play areas, habitat for wildlife, walking trails, and gardens. One major study is "Grounds for Action: Promoting Physical Activity through School Ground Greening in Canada" by Anne C. Bell and Janet E. Dyment. While this study has roots in concern about obesity in children, it documents results and benefits beyond weight loss. Children who experience school grounds with diverse natural settings are more physically active, more aware of nutrition, more civil to one another, and more creative. One of the major benefits of green school grounds is increased involvement by adults and members of the nearby community, from helping with gardens to enriching the lifescape of the school grounds. Concerned about policy implications, this report offers specific recommendations for actions communities can take, from local neighborhoods to cities, states, and provinces. (Original Research)Bell, Anne C.; and Janet E. Dyment. "Grounds for Action: Promoting Physical Activity through School Ground Greening in Canada." © 2006 Evergreen.
Naturalized School Grounds Benefit Children and Communities
A precursor to the study above, this report, "Nature Nurtures: Investigating the Potential of School Grounds," is an important compendium of documented benefits from "greening" school grounds. It includes citations of benefits to students, from improved academic performance to lower exposure to toxins; benefits to teachers, from increased enthusiasm for teaching to fewer classroom discipline problems; benefits to schools, from reduced absenteeism to fewer discipline problems; and benefits to communities, from better community health to "banked social capital." The report provides recommendations and tangible examples of ways to transform traditional school grounds into "green" school grounds for enriched learning and other benefits.(Synthesis)"Nature Nurtures: Investigating the Potential of School Grounds." © 2000 Evergreen. Available online at www.evergreen.ca
There Are More Benefits from Naturalized Playgrounds and School Grounds — and Ways to Achieve Them
Randy White offers a variety of resources, articles, and recommendations for designing school grounds and playgrounds to optimize the benefits to children's development. One of his many excellent articles is "Young Children's Relationship with Nature: Its Importance to Children's Development & the Earth's Future." In addition to citing references and providing a succinct summary of the many benefits of informal and unstructured natural play environments for children, he distills the findings into a list of beneficial elements of naturalized play environments that any of us can use, from back yards to school grounds to neighborhood parks. Visit Randy White's Web site for additional resources and information at www.whitehutchinson.com. (Synthesis)White, Randy. "Young Children's Relationship with Nature: Its Importance to Children's Development & the Earth's Future."
Schoolyard Habitat Projects Bring Natural Benefits to School and Students
This brief article by Mary Rivkin is an important reminder of the importance of bringing natural habitats to school grounds as places for natural learning. When the article was written in 1997, there was a burgeoning movement in the U.S. to have schoolyard habitat projects—places of natural and rich learning, integral to the curriculum, and a respite for teachers, students and the community overall. We've literally lost ground in this respect. The concept remains accessible, important, and healthy. This article is a short, succinct summary of the natural benefits afforded from schoolyard habitat projects.(Synthesis)Rivkin, Mary. "The Schoolyard Habitat Movement: What It Is and Why Children Need It." Early Childhood Education Journal. Volume 25, No. 1, 1997. Available on the National Wildlife Federation web site (Synthesis)
Natural Settings Provide Psychological Benefits
"Coping with ADD: The Surprising Connection to Green Play Settings," by Andrea Faber Taylor; Frances E. Kuo; and William C. Sullivan (2001) is one of the earliest studies to explore the potential for contact with nature to have a positive effect in reducing the impact of attention deficit disorder in children. The study was designed to test two hypotheses: 1) Attention deficit symptoms will be more manageable after activities in green settings than after activities in other settings; and 2) The greener a child's everyday environment, the more manageable their attention deficit symptoms will be in general. The results were positive. (Original Research)Taylor, Andrea Faber; Frances E. Kuo; and William C. Sullivan. In Environment and Behavior, Vol. 33, No. 1, January 2001. © 2001 Sage Publications, Inc. Available on the web site of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, at www.lhhl.uiuc.edu
Nature Activities Soothe ADD Symptoms
Contact with the natural world can significantly reduce symptoms of attention deficit disorder in children as young as five. Here is another important study that supports this finding. In addition to access to reports of the primary research, the scholars provide a Power Point presentation that may be used in communities to disseminate this positive information based on sound research. (Original Research)Kuo, Frances E.; and Andrea Faber Taylor. "A Potential Natural Treatment for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Evidence from a National Study." In American Journal of Public Health, Vol 94, No. 9, September 2004. © American Public Health Association. The study and the educational Power Point are available on the web site of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, at www.lhhl.uiuc.edu
Access to Nature Nurtures Self-Discipline
This study focuses on the positive benefits to inner city youth, particularly girls, from access to green spaces for play. Even a view of green settings enhances peace, self-control, and self-discipline. While the results are most notable for girls, the evidence is not limited to the positive impact on girls. (Original Research)Taylor, Andrea Faber; Frances E. Kuo; and William C. Sullivan. "Views of Nature and Self-Discipline: Evidence from Inner City Children." In the Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, 2001. © 2001 Academic Press. Available on the Web site of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, at www.lhhl.uiuc.edu.
Nearby Nature Reduces Stress in Children
This study, reported in 2003, by Cornell assistant professor Nancy Wells, focuses on rural children and finds that even a view of nature—green plants and vistas—helps reduce stress among highly stressed children. Further, the more plants, green views and access to natural play areas, the more positive the results. (Original Research)Wells, N.M., and Evans, G.W. "Nearby Nature: A Buffer of Life Stress Among Rural Children." Environment and Behavior. Vol. 35:3, 311-330. This study is not available online without purchase; it can be obtained by contacting Sage Publications.
Nearby Nature Boosts Children’s Cognitive Functioning
A precursor to Nancy Wells' study reported above, this research, reported in 2000, shows that proximity to, views of, and daily exposure to natural settings increases children's ability to focus and therefore enhances cognitive abilities. (Original Research)Wells, N.M. "At Home with Nature: Effects of 'Greenness' on Children's Cognitive Functioning." Environment and Behavior. Vol. 32, No. 6, 775-795. This study is not available online without purchase; it can be obtained by contacting Sage Publications.
Design Cities Where Children Can Play and Learn Independently
City planners and city leaders need to create safe and accessible places for children to play. As more and more children live in urban settings, cities need to be redesigned with children in mind. This study offers explicit evidence for the importance of natural play areas in cities, and suggestions for actions to take to achieve this outcome. The study includes a summary of the characteristics of cities and neighborhoods that need to be considered in order to create safe places for children to play independently, with all of the associated and documented benefits that will result. (Original Research)Churchman, Arza. "Is There a Place for Children in the City." In the Journal of Urban Design, Volume 8, No 2, 99-111, June 2003. Available on the Web site of the University of North Carolina, College of Design, Natural Learning Initiative.
City Parks Bring Social, Community Health and Economic Benefits
The Trust for Public Land (TPL) is a premier conservation organization, responsible for protection of special public lands throughout several generations. Today TPL is concerned not just about setting lands aside for future generations, but making sure that young people and families enjoy them today. TPL recognizes that to connect with nature is to appreciate nature, now and for the long term. This comprehensive report, "The Benefits of Parks: Why America Needs More City Parks and Open Space," offers a clear look at socioeconomic factors affecting the availability of parks, the history of city parks, and the hopes for a revival of commitment to city parks. The report outlines benefits in a number of areas: physical, including remedies for inactivity and obesity; economic, with increased property values; environmental, with pollution abatement; and social, from crime reduction to strengthening communities. Add this report to your collection of those that serve to document how safe places for children to play contribute to everyone's health and well being. Available on the Trust for Public Land web site. (Synthesis)The Trust for Public Land (TPL), "The Benefits of Parks: Why America Needs More City Parks and Open Space."
City Parks Offer a Sense of Place
This brief article draws on solid research, some of which is independently referenced elsewhere in this list. Among the points made are that city parks offer a sense of place, opportunity for daily experience with nature, experiences that enhance school achievement, and antidotes to alienation. This American Planning Association City Parks Forum Briefing Paper is largely inspired by the work of Robin Moore, noted and pioneering landscape designer with a commitment to creating learning landscapes that optimize children's learning. "Natural spaces and materials stimulate children's limitless imaginations and serve as the medium of inventiveness and creativity," says Moore. Readers will find tangible reasons for the benefits associated with using city parks as places for learning as well as community-based examples and resources. (Synthesis)"How Cities Use Parks to . . . Help Children Learn," Chicago, IL: American Planning Association, 2003 is available on line at www.naturalearning.org and www.planning.org.
Volume Two – June 2007
All children deserve to grow up in an environment where they can flourish—where they can develop physically, socially, emotionally, and cognitively to reach their full, unique potential. The first volume of the Children & Nature Network (C&NN) Research and Studies (February 2007) highlighted the benefits to children and youth from experiences in nature. This second volume focuses on evidence of changes in children’s experience of nature.The studies selected for this annotated bibliography are either reports of original research or syntheses of existing research. All meet criteria for scholarly excellence. It is important to recognize that research directly related to children’s experience of nature is limited and that every study has strengths and weaknesses. Studies included in this annotated bibliography are a valuable starting point and together suggest: 1) an overall decline in children’s opportunities to connect with nature on a daily basis, although individual children’s experiences may vary considerably; and 2) a number of possible reasons why this decline might be occurring. It is critical that research in this area moves forward to build a stronger, more cohesive evidence base. Improving our understanding of children’s experience of nature and the complex relationships that influence their experiences will help ensure that parents, policy makers, and practitioners have the information they need to create environments in which children can thrive.
This C&NN resource includes an executive summary of each research report; full citation; and information on its availability. While this listing includes many outstanding studies, it is by no means exhaustive and recommendations are welcome on additional research to include. Please send suggestions to the attention of Cheryl Charles, Ph.D, President, Children & Nature Network.
Annotated Bibliography by Alicia Senauer Yale University
Children spend less time playing outdoors than their mothers did when they were young
In this study, Dr. Rhonda Clements surveyed over 800 mothers in the United States to explore the extent to which children in the early 2000s play outdoors as compared to a generation ago when the mothers interviewed were children. In analyzing the survey results, Dr. Clements found that children in the early 2000s, as compared to a generation ago: 1) spend less time playing outdoors; 2) participate in different activities outdoors (e.g., fewer street games and more organized youth sports); and 3) participate in more indoor than outdoor play activities. In her survey, Dr. Clements also asked mothers about obstacles to outdoor play and their thoughts regarding the benefits of outdoor play. She found that while almost all mothers recognized some of the diverse benefits of outdoor play, obstacles, such as television, computers, and concerns about crime, safety, and injury, prevented their children from participating in more outdoor play. This study provides important insights into the changing nature of children’s outdoor play and is one of the few studies that explore this topic in the United States.Clements, R. “An Investigation of the State of Outdoor Play.” Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, Vol. 5(1):68-80, 2004. This study is available online.
Children’s use of space has changed from being primarily outdoors to indoors and has become increasingly adult supervised
In this study, Dr. Lia Karsten takes a detailed look at three different streets in Amsterdam to investigate children’s use of space in 2003 as compared with children’s use of space during the 1950s and early 1960s. She made numerous observations of the three streets and conducted over 90 extensive interviews with children and parents and with adults who lived on these streets in the 1950s and early 1960s. To validate information from her interviews, Dr. Karsten also conducted archival and statistical analyses of historical data. Dr. Karsten found a great deal of similarity in children’s daily lives in the 1950s and early 1960s. Specifically, she found that in this generation “playing meant playing outside.” This was often a matter of both necessity, primarily due to small living spaces, and pleasure. She also found that children had considerable freedom to move around on their own, had a relatively large territory to roam, played with children from diverse backgrounds, and used urban public space for many of their activities. In contrast, Dr. Karsten found that children in 2003 did not play outside as much or for as long a period of time, had a more restricted range in which they could move freely, had fewer playmates from less diverse backgrounds, were more home-centered, and experienced many more parent-induced constraints. Importantly, Dr. Karsten documents how these changes from the 1950s and 1960s to 2003 have occurred within a spatial, social, and cultural context. She discusses contributing factors to many of these changes, such as the introduction of the car, which changed safety in the streets, and the trend toward bigger homes and fewer children, which made indoor space more readily available. She also documents how these changes are not universal and that neighborhoods differ in their support of children’s activities. To capture this diversity, Dr. Karsten describes three primary types of children in the current generation —“outdoor” children, “indoor” children, and those she calls the “backseat generation” (i.e., children who are escorted many places and whose activities are largely driven by adults). Each type has benefits and drawbacks with regard to children’s daily activities.Karsten, L. “It All Used to be Better? Different Generations on Continuity and Change in Urban Children’s Daily Use of Space.” Children’s Geographies, Vol.3 (3), pp275-290, 2005. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher (Taylor & Francis Group).
Children’s access to public play space has declined
Dr. Pamela Wridt spent over three years in a working-class New York City community conducting an historical analysis from the 1930s until the early 2000s of residents’ spatial and environmental experiences between the ages of 11 and 13. In her study, she used a variety of research methods. In this particular paper, Dr. Wridt reports on her findings from extensive environmental autobiographies with residents by looking in-depth at three individuals whose experiences are representative of a particular time period. In her analysis, Dr. Wridt found that youth in this community in the 1940s spent a significant amount of time playing in the streets, which was an important space for adventure, meeting other children, and independence. By the 1950s, however, with the increased prevalence of automobiles and child death due to automobile accidents, numerous parks and playgrounds were built to protect children. As a result, children’s play began to move off the streets into parks and playgrounds that, in many cases, offered structured, city-sponsored activities. By the 1970s and 1980s, with New York City’s fiscal crises, many of the parks and playgrounds fell into disrepair and became unsafe. As a result, children’s play began to move from the parks and playgrounds to indoor environments. Dr. Wridt found that in the 2000s, children in this community have largely retreated indoors. Their activities take place in private or institutionalized settings and are often dominated by various forms of electronic media. Importantly, Dr. Wridt highlights disparities that can occur in children’s access to both outdoor and indoor spaces based on race and economic status. She concludes that while today’s children in this community still play in the streets, parks, and playgrounds, their play generally occurs in indoor spaces and consists of activities that are increasingly managed by adults and often take place in institutional settings.Wridt, Pamela J. “An Historical Analysis of Young People’s Use of Public Space, Parks and Playgrounds in New York City.” Children, Youth and Environments 14(1), 86-106, 2004. This study is available online at:
The availability of supportive and diverse play environments and children’s access to neighborhood space has declined
In this small, innovative study, Dr. Sanford Gaster interviewed 29 long-time residents in one New York City neighborhood to understand how children’s use of their neighborhood changed between 1915 and 1976. He also analyzed U.S. Census data to understand demographic changes that occurred during this time period. While the small sample size prevented statistical analyses of the data, Dr. Gaster analyzed the content of the interviews, as well as the Census data, to understand changes in the physical, social, and economic landscape. With this information, he made inter-generational comparisons. Some of his key findings include: 1) the age at which children were allowed outside unsupervised increased over time; 2) children visited more places in their neighborhood when the outdoor opportunities were the most diverse and numerous; 3) the number of barriers to children’s outdoor exploration has increased over time and the types of barriers have shifted from being more environmental (e.g., a river) to being more social; 4) the availability and level of participation in professionally-supervised activities increased significantly over time; and 5) even within the same neighborhood, children’s experiences may differ due to racial and economic differences. Dr. Gaster’s study highlights the multitude of forces that have likely shaped children’s access to their neighborhood and provides important insights to present-day issues and questions.Gaster, S. “Urban Children’s Access to Their Neighborhood: Changes Over Three Generations.” Environment and Behavior, 23(1), 70-85, 1991. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased through the publisher (SAGE Publications) at:
We are visiting U.S. national parks less often
Since 1988, per capita visits to U.S. national parks have declined by about 20%. In this study, Drs. Oliver Pergams and Patricia Zardic investigated some potential reasons for this decline. While there are many possible contributing factors, they focused on those related to how Americans spend their time and specifically time associated with electronic entertainment media (e.g., hours of television, video games, home movies, and Internet use). Drs. Pergams and Zardic note that since 1988 there has been a dramatic shift in Americans’ time. For example, in 2003 the average person spent 327 more hours per year with entertainment media than in 1987. This shift in time clearly impacts time devoted to other activities, one activity of which could be national park visits. In their analysis, Drs. Pergrams and Zardic found that a number of entertainment media variables, as well as inflation-adjusted oil prices, appeared to explain almost all of the decline in national park visits. While this study only looked at association between factors, and not causation, it is an important first step in beginning to understand why U.S. national park attendance has and is continuing to decline and what this might mean for children’s exposure to nature.Pergams, O. R. W., & Zaradic, P. A. “Is Love of Nature in the US Becoming Love of Electronic Media? 16-year Downtrend in National Park Visits Explained by Watching Movies, Playing Video Games, Internet Use, and Oil Prices.” Journal of Environmental Management, 80(4), 387-393, 2006. This study is available online at Dr. Oliver Pergam’s website:
Children have less free time and spend more of the little free time they have in structured activities
In two studies, one released in 2001 and the other in 2006, Dr. Sandra Hofferth and colleagues look at changes in how American children spent their time between 1981 and 1997 and between 1997 and 2002/3. By collecting 24-hour time diaries (one for a school day and one for a non-school day) from thousands of parent/child participants, they investigated time spent in 18 different activities during the school year* and analyzed the impact of various demographic variables on children’s time (e.g., number of parents, employment status of parents, the number of children in the family, and the level of parental education). In their studies, Dr. Hofferth and colleagues present many interesting findings. A few of their overarching findings include: 1) children’s discretionary time (i.e., time not spent in school, child care, etc.) declined 12% (7.4 hours a week) from 1981 to 1997 and an additional 4% (2 hours) from 1997 to 2002/3; and 2) the way children spend their discretionary time has changed—less time is spent in unstructured activities (e.g., free play) and more time is spent in structured activities (e.g., sports and youth programs). Other changes of interest include a doubling of computer use and substantial increase in time spent studying and reading, as well as an increase in participation and time spent in church activities and youth groups. In their analyses, they found that a number of these and other findings are associated with demographic changes in U.S. families, such as the increase in households headed by single parents and the increase in maternal employment. *Please note that the activity categories used in this study are inclusive of many subsets of activities. For example, two categories of particular interest to this audience—play and the outdoors—are represented in a mix of activities. “Play” includes indoor and outdoor play, such as playing cards and board games, playing social games, and playing with toys, whereas “outdoors” includes gardening, boating, hiking, walking, and pleasure drives, among other activities. Descriptions of these two categories can be found in Hofferth, S. L., & Sandberg, J. F. (2001), “How American children spend their time.” Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63(2), 295-308. It is also important to note that these studies focus on activities at home; they do not describe activities that take place at school or other non-home settings.Hofferth, S.L. & J.F. Sandberg. “Changes in American Children’s Time, 1981-1997.” In S.L. Hofferth & T.J. Owens (Eds.), Children at the Millennium: Where Have We Come From, Where Are We Going? (pp. 1-7). New York: JAI, 2001. This study may be available in a library or bookstore near you. Hofferth, S.L. & S.C. Curtin. Changes in Children’s Time, 1997-2002/3: An Update, 2006. This study is available online at:
Children spend considerable time with media and multiple forms of media
In two studies, one released in 2006 and the other in 2005, Dr. Donald Roberts and colleagues and Victoria Rideout and colleagues investigate media in the lives of children 6 months to 6 years of age, as well as in the lives of 8 to 18 year olds. These studies were conducted in association with the Kaiser Family Foundation and involved various research techniques. The first study of children 6 months to 6 years old involved both a nationally-representative telephone survey of over a thousand parents, as well as a series of small focus groups with parents in four different cities. The second study of 8 to 18 year olds involved having a national sample of over 2000 youth complete an anonymous written questionnaire, as well as having nearly 700 youth complete a detailed 7-day diary of their media use. Both studies took place during the school year and measured recreational (non-school) use of media, including TV and videos, music, video games, computers, movies, and print. A few of the key findings highlighted in these reports include:· Young people today experience a substantial amount of electronic media—Children between the ages of 6 months and 6 years spend an average of 1.5 hours with electronic media on a daily basis, whereas children between the ages of 8 and 18 years spend an average of nearly 6.5 hours a day with electronic media.
· Since 1999, there has been very little change in the amount of time 8 to 18 year olds spend using media—This trend may indicate that young people have reached a limit with regards to how much time they can devote on any given day to media.
· 8 to 18 year old children are packing more media into the same amount of time—When young people use media, about a quarter of the time they are using more than one medium at a time (e.g., reading and watching TV).
· Children’s homes are filled with media—Nearly one third of children from 6 months to 6 years of age live in households where the TV is on all or most of the time.
· Television and music remain the dominant media to which children are exposed—8 to 18 year olds spend an average of 3 hours a day watching TV and about 1.75 hours a day listening to music.
· Access to and use of computers and the Internet has increased dramatically since the last surveys were conducted—Since 1999, 13% more 8 to 18 year olds have a computer at home (for a total of 86%); an additional 27% have Internet access (for a total of 74%); and 17% more spend over an hour online each day (for a total of 22%).
· There are some important demographic differences with regards to the amount of time children and youth spend with different types of media—Children whose parents have lower incomes or less formal education, for example, tend to watch more TV and play more video games than children whose parents have higher incomes and more formal education.
· Parents play a critical role in determining children’s exposure to media—Children who grow up in households where TV is more prominent, for example, spend more time watching TV than those children who grow up in households where TV is less prominent.
Roberts, D. F., Foehr, U., & Rideout, V. Generation M: Media in the Lives of 8 to 18 Year Olds. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2005. Rideout, V. and E. Hamel. The Media Family: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants, Toddlers, Preschoolers, and Their Parents. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2006.
Over the past several decades, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of overweight children in the United States
Over the past 40 to 50 years, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has conducted large national surveys to measure and better understand nutrition and health in the United States. By looking at some of these measurements over time, we can track changes with regards to various health measures, such as the prevalence of children and adolescents who are overweight. Dr. Richard Troiano and colleagues investigated overweight prevalence and trends for children and adolescents from the 1960s to the early 1990s, and Dr. Cynthia Ogden and colleagues investigated prevalence and trends from the late 1990s to 2004. Together, these two studies show that the prevalence of overweight children and adolescents has increased dramatically. The prevalence of children (ages 6 to 11) who are overweight has increased from about 4% in the 1960s to almost 19% in 2003/4. Similarly, the prevalence of adolescents (ages 12 to 19) who are overweight has increased from about 4.5% in the 1960s to about 17.5% in 2003/4. This increase in overweight children and adolescents appears to have started in the 1980s. It is important to note, and the authors discuss, that there are variations within these trends. For example, the prevalence of children and adolescents who are overweight at any given time period is not the same for males and females or for different racial and ethnic groups.Troiano, R. P., Flegal, K. M., Kuczmarski, R. J., Campbell, S. M., & Johnson, C. L. “Overweight Prevalence and Trends for Children and Adolescents: The National-Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1963 to 1991.” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 149(10), 1085-1091, 1995. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased through the publisher (American Medical Association). Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., McDowell, M. A., Tabak, C. J., & Flegal, K. M. “Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in the United States, 1999-2004.” Jama-Journal of the American Medical Association, 295(13), 1549-1555, 2006. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased through the publisher (American Medical Association). The Centers for Disease Prevention and Control provides information online regarding overweight trends for children and adolescents. This information is available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/trend/index.htm Additional information on childhood obesity can be found at:
Not all children have recess and those that do have recess do not have it for very long periods of time
Recess is an important opportunity for children to be outdoors, to play and to be physically active. In this report, the National Center for Education Statistics (U.S. Department of Education) investigated food and physical activity in public elementary schools. This report is based on a survey of 1,198 public elementary schools in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. The survey covered a variety of topics, including whether schools provided recess, the number of days per week recess was provided, and the length of time for recess. A few of the report’s findings include: • Most public elementary schools have scheduled recess (87% to 93%), depending on the specific grade discussed, however, 7% to 13% of elementary schools do not have scheduled recess. • Most schools have recess every day (83% to 88%), depending on the specific grade discussed. • The majority of schools have recess once a day (55% to 66%), depending on the specific grade discussed. • The average number of minutes per day or recess ranged from 23.8 to 27.8 (depending on the specific grade discussed). There were differences with regard to whether a school provided recess, the frequency of recess, and the amount of recess, based on specific school characteristics (e.g., school size, location, region, percent minority enrollment, or percent poverty concentration). For example, schools with the highest poverty concentrations were more likely not to have scheduled recess than those with lower concentrations of poverty.Parsad, B. and Lewis, L. Calories In, Calories Out: Food and Exercise in Public Elementary Schools, 2005 (NCES 2006-057). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, 2006. This study is available online at:
Not all youth participate in physical activities outside of school
In preparation for a youth media campaign to encourage physical activity, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) conducted the first nationally-representative investigation on the levels and types of physical activity among 9 to 13 year olds. Researchers conducted a telephone survey of 4,500 children (9 to 13 years of age) and their parents about their participation in after-school and weekend physical activities. In analyzing the data from their survey, the CDC found that 61.5% of children do not participate in any organized physical activity (an activity with an organized group) and 22.6% do not participate in any free-time physical activity. In addition, they found some significant differences based on race and ethnicity, such as that parental concerns regarding barriers to participation (e.g., transportation or expense) were reported more often by non-Hispanic black and Hispanic parents than by non-Hispanic white parents. The survey results indicated that baseball and softball, soccer, and basketball were the organized physical activities in which children participated most frequently, whereas riding bicycles and playing basketball were the most frequent free-time activities. The CDC recognizes that some of the survey results may have been influenced by the season in which the survey was conducted and that due to the nature of this survey they were not able to investigate the amount of time that children participated in these activities.US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). “Physical Activity Levels Among Children Aged 9 to 13 Years—United States, 2002. MMWR Weekly; 52(33):785-88, 2003. This study is available online at:
Children playing in urban areas may experience lower levels of biological diversity
In this study, Dr. Will Turner and colleagues measured biodiversity in five diverse metropolitan areas by calculating species diversity (birds or ferns) in neighborhoods, using the mean biological diversity of all neighborhoods as a baseline. They found that the majority of people in urban areas live with impoverished biodiversity. For example, of the 4.4 million people who lived in the four cities they investigated with bird data, 73.2% of them lived in areas that had biodiversity levels below the baseline. When Dr. Turner and colleagues used only native species in their analyses, the percentages of people exposed to lower levels of biodiversity increased. In addition, when they used historical neighborhood biological diversity (rather than the mean neighborhood biological diversity) the percentages of people exposed to lower levels of biodiversity also increased (for example, in Tucson it went from 71.2% to 90.8%). Dr. Turner and colleagues conclude that many people experience biological uniformity (i.e., they tend to experience the same species, rather than a diverse mix) in their urban neighborhoods. They also discuss the implications this work has for human health, child development, and how we design our built environment.Turner, W. R., Nakamura, T., & Dinetti, M. “Global Urbanization and the Separation of Humans from Nature. Bioscience, 54(6), 585-590, 2004. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased through the publisher (American Institute of Biological Sciences) at:
Children know more about Pokémon than common wildlife
In a small, innovative study, Dr. Andrew Balmford and colleagues surveyed 109 United Kingdom (UK) primary schoolchildren (ages 4 to 11) to investigate their knowledge of natural and non-natural objects. Each child was shown a set of 20 flashcards—10 of common British wildlife species (including plants, invertebrates, and mammals) and 10 of Pokémon characters. The authors found that while individual children’s scores varied, children’s overall identification success for common wildlife species rose from 32% at age 4 to 53% at age 8 and then fell slightly, whereas children’s identification success for Pokémon characters rose from 7% at age 4 to 78% at age 8. Dr. Balmford and colleagues discuss the possible implications of children’s lack of knowledge of common wildlife types and the importance of reconnecting children with local nature.Balmford, A., Clegg, L., Coulson, T., & Taylor, J. “Why Conservationists Should Heed Pokémon.” Science, 295(5564), 2367-2367, 2002. This study is available online at:
Biology students know very few common plants
In this study, Anne Bebbington tested nearly 800 advanced-level biology students (secondary school students in the United Kingdom (UK) who are generally 16-17 years of age) on their ability to identify 10 common wildflowers that were illustrated in color on a sheet of paper. Interestingly, she found that none of these students could name all 10 wildflowers and the vast majority of students (86%) could not name more than three common wildflowers. Ms. Bebbington also tested Post Graduate Certificate of Education students and teachers, but the sample sizes for both of these groups were too small to conduct comparative analyses. In closing, Ms. Bebbington discusses how science is taught in primary and secondary schools in the UK and what implications this study may have for education. Importantly, she highlights the role of identification and how it is not an end in itself—in fact it is just the beginning. Knowing the name of organisms (in this case wildflowers) can prompt students to ask questions and learn about organisms and their environments.Bebbington, A. “The Ability of A-level Students to Name Plants.” Journal of Biological Education, 39(2), 62-67, 2005. This study is available online at:
Children are walking and bicycling to school less than they used to
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has compiled statistical information from a number of sources that document changes in children’s active transportation to and from school over the past thirty years. The data indicate that the percent of children who live within a mile of school and who walk or bike to school as their primary means of transportation has declined almost 25% over the past thirty years (from 87% to 63%) and that children who walk or bike from any distance has declined 26% (from 42% to 16%). The CDC also provides statistical information regarding four common barriers to children’s active transportation and how they have changed over time: distance to school, adverse weather conditions, traffic dangers, and crimes against children. The data indicate that distance to school and traffic volume have increased over the past thirty years (for example, 34% of children in 1969 lived within 1 mile of their school, whereas just 21% of children live within 1 mile of their school today), whereas adverse weather conditions, crimes against children, and traffic-related accidents have not increased and in the case of crimes against children (12 to 19 years of age) and traffic accidents (from 1995 to 2002) rates have actually decreased. In looking at this data, it is important to recognize that these are broad, general statistics and while providing important information, they do not explain why some of these changes may be occurring (for example, the reduction in traffic-related accidents may be due to the fact that there are less people on the street). In addition, they do not capture local and regional variations that may exist. In closing, the CDC offers strategies for moving forward and overcoming each of these barriers, such as changing school siting policies, increasing education related to the risk of neighborhood crime, and reducing traffic dangers.Kids Walk-to-school: Then and Now—Barriers and Solutions. Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006. This information is available online at:
Schools are too far away for children to walk or bike to
In 2003, Beldon Russonello and Stewart Research and Communications conducted a survey to investigate American’s attitudes toward walking. In this national, random sample telephone survey of 800 adults, they found that while 71% of adults indicated that they walked or rode a bike to school when they were young, only 22% of children do so today. The primary reason reported for more children not walking or biking was because schools were too far away.Beldon Russonello and Stewart Research and Communications. “Americans' Attitudes toward Walking and Creating Better Walking Communities.” Surface Transportation Policy Project Report. Washington: Beldon Russonello & Stewart Research and Communications, 2003. This report is available online at:
In two decades children’s independent mobility has dramatically declined
This article summarizes some of the results of a study conducted by Dr. Mayer Hillman and colleagues in 1990 of almost 4,500 children and parents to explore junior (7 to 11 years of age) and senior (11 to 15 years of age) schoolchildren’s travel patterns and levels of independence in England and Germany. This particular article focuses on the results of the survey in England of junior schoolchildren and their parents, as compared to a 1971 survey that was implemented in the same schools. Some of the key findings highlighted in this article include:· In 1971, 80% of 7 to 8 year olds could go to school on their own, whereas just 9% could do so in 1990.
· In 1990, only half as many 7 to 11 year olds as in 1971 could go to places other than school by themselves.
· In 1971, 66% of children who owned bicycles could use them on roads, whereas just 25% of children could do so in 1990.
· There were large increases in the proportion of children being driven to school by car (from about 9% in 1971 to about 32% in 1990) and the proportion of children being accompanied by adults (from about 30% of 7 year olds in 1971 to 92% in 1990).
· The age at which children are granted specific freedoms increased—the freedom permitted to a 7 year old in 1971 was permitted to the average 9.5 year old in 1990.
· Parents’ primary concern was danger of traffic.
· Parents thought they had far more freedom than their children have.
Dr. Hillman and colleagues primarily attribute the large decline in children’s independent mobility to increased motorized traffic. They discuss how road accident statistics are not an adequate or comprehensive measure of road safety and that the primary reason why there have been reduced accident rates in England is due to the fact that children have been pulled off the streets and are no longer exposed to traffic. Children’s lack of freedom to move about their neighborhoods is not currently accounted for in the costs of transportation and the authors propose other possible measures of road safety that go beyond mere accident statistics.
Hillman, M., & Adams, J. G. U. “Children's Freedom and Safety.” Children's Environments, 9(2), 12-33, 1992. This study is available online. Hillman, M., Adams, J., and Whitelegg, J. One False Move: A Study of Children’s Independent Mobility. London: Policy Studies Institute, 1990. This report may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online.
- [>] click here to down load a PDF of "Children's Freedom and Safety"
- [>] click here to purchase "A Study of Children’s Independent Mobility"
Many children do not go out by themselves
This report presents findings from a 2003 survey of over 2,500 children and young people conducted by England’s Office of National Statistics. The survey was designed to collect data on children’s (8 to 10 years old) and young people’s (11 to 15 years old) views on a variety of topics, including their social networks, participation in their communities, and attitudes about their neighborhood. A few of the findings for children (8 to 10 years of age) include:· 89% of children said they enjoyed living on their street and block a lot or quite a lot; 11% said they did not enjoy living on their street and block.
· 66% of children said they felt very safe or fairly safe walking or playing alone during the daytime; 34% said they did not feel safe.
· For those who felt unsafe walking or playing alone, the fear of abduction or kidnapping by strangers was the most cited reason at 59%, followed by cars and traffic at 23%.
· 33% of children said they went to local shops or parks on their own; 67% said they did not go to local shops or parks on their own.
· 51% of children said their friends played in their home or garden at least once a week.
· When meeting friends outside of their home, 21% of children were accompanied by an adult all of the time and another 52% were accompanied by an adult some of the time.
· 67% of children said they went to clubs outside of school—sports clubs were the most frequently cited at 57%.
· 89% of children are usually transported in the car to go places during evenings and weekends.
In the report, the authors note important variations in responses to this survey by age as well as economic status. For example, older children were more likely to feel safe and to venture out to local shops and parks by themselves. In addition, children in more affluent areas tended to be more positive about their neighborhood than children in more deprived areas.
Farmer, C. Home Office Citizenship Survey: Top Level Findings from the Children and Young People's Survey. Home Office and the Department for Education and Skills, 2005. This report is available online.
Children do not play outside as much as they would like to
Playday is a national campaign, based out of the United Kingdom (UK), to celebrate children’s right to play. As part of an annual celebration, the Children’s Play Council, often in partnership with other organizations, commissions a survey related to children’s play. For their 2005 survey, the British Market Research Bureau interviewed 671 children age 7 to 14 in Great Britain to investigate children’s opportunities for outdoor play and the barriers they encounter. In addition, for their 2006 survey, the British Market Research Bureau interviewed 543 7 to 14 year olds across the four UK nations to investigate where children play. Some of the key findings from these two surveys include: 1) a number of children do not play outside very often (20% of children play outside for an hour or less a week), 2) 39% of children do not play outside as much as they would like to, 3) children generally prefer to play in natural spaces over non-natural spaces, 4) safety and the quality of their environment (e.g., the places to play outside) are the biggest factors that impact how much children play outside, and 5) outdoor and indoor activities (e.g., computer games, TV, and homework) seem to compete against one another for children’s time.Playday 2005 and 2006 Survey Reports. British Market Research Bureau for the Children’s Play Council, 2005, 2006. These survey results are available online.
Parental concerns are more influential than the availability of play spaces in determining children’s play opportunities
In this study, Drs. Gill Valentine and John McKendrick discuss the results of a research project they conducted in Northwest England with parents from diverse socio-economic backgrounds who had an 8 to 11 year old child. They conducted a survey with 400 parents and an in-depth interview with 70 of these parents to investigate their opinions about public facilities and play spaces, as well as specific concerns (e.g., safety) that might be influencing children’s access to these spaces. In analyzing their data, Drs. Valentine and McKendrick found that most parents were dissatisfied with public play facilities in their neighborhoods and that there were differences in parents’ opinions about these facilities based on social class, family status (e.g., single or two parent household), and geographic area (urban vs. rural). Despite this overall perceived lack of opportunity, however, Drs. Valentine and McKendrick found that parental restrictions play the largest role in determining children’s play opportunities and that even if there were enough adequate play facilities, many parents would not allow their children to use them based on their concerns about safety related to traffic and strangers. Additionally, they found that family status (e.g., single or two parent household) impacts children’s play experience and that social interactions between mothers play an important role in determining what is acceptable regarding children’s outdoor play.Valentine, G. and McKendrick, J. “Children’s Outdoor Play: Exploring Parental Concerns About Children’s Safety and the Changing Nature of Childhood. Geoforum, 28(2), 205-220, 1997. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased through the publisher (Elsevier).
Parents identify safety as the biggest barrier to children’s independent play
In this study, Dr. Jenny Veitch and colleagues interviewed 78 parents from five primary schools in Melbourne, Australia to investigate children’s free-play and their perceptions about what influences children’s free-play. The interviews provided rich, in-depth information regarding individual, social, and physical influences on children’s play. In their analysis, Dr. Veitch and colleagues found that children primarily engaged in free-play in their yard at home, with a smaller percentage of parents reporting that their child often played in the street and public open spaces. The most important influence on a child’s mobility was safety, with 94% of parents stating that safety was their biggest concern. Parents’ safety concerns centered around strangers, teenagers and gangs, and road traffic. Other influences on mobility included a child’s independence (for example, older children had greater independence than younger children); a child’s attitude towards free-play (for example, parents often described their children as being “indoor” or “outdoor”); social networks (such as the absence of young people nearby to play with); and play facilities (almost 50% of parents complained about the lack of age-appropriate play equipment available in parks and playgrounds).Veitch, J., Bagley, S., Ball, K., & Salmon, J. “Where Do Children Usually Play? A Qualitative Study of Parents' Perceptions of Influences on Children's Active Free Play.” Health & Place, 12(4), 383-393, 2006. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased through the publisher (Elsevier).
Parental constraints have always been present, but in this generation they seem to exert much greater control on children’s play
In this study, Dr. Christine Tandy surveyed 421 children (ages 5 to 12) and 165 parents from suburban primary schools in Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia to investigate changes in children’s independent mobility over time by comparing play patterns of schoolchildren in the late 1990s with play patterns of their parents. Dr. Tandy found that children in the late 1990s spent their time predominantly playing at home and in activities that were monitored or controlled by adults as compared to children a generation ago. Despite the dominance of home-based play, children’s drawings, however, indicated a strong preference for outdoor activities. Dr. Tandy also found that while children in both generations had parental constraints placed on their activities out of concern for their safety, children a generation ago still had a high degree of mobility and freedom (33.1% of children a generation ago had only a few restrictions with regard to their play space as compared to just 3.1% of children in the late 1990s). Parents themselves recognized this difference and a number indicated that society had changed from one in which it was safe for children to freely play, to one where it is not safe and thus there was a greater need for supervision to ensure children’s safety.Tandy, C. “Children's Diminishing Play Space: A Study of Intergenerational Change in Children's Use of Their Neighborhoods.” Australian Geographical Studies, 37(2), 154-164, 1999. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased through the publisher (Institute of Australian Geographers).
Parents’ perceptions about their neighborhood influence children’s mobility
In this study, Dr. Anna Timperio and colleagues investigated how parents’ perceptions of their local neighborhood might be related to their child’s walking and cycling behaviors. They surveyed 1,210 families with children (5 to 6 years old or 10 to 12 years old) from 19 state primary schools in high and low socioeconomic areas in Melbourne, Australia. With the collected data, Dr. Timperio and colleagues conducted multivariate analyses and found that a number of parental perceptions about the neighborhood were associated with children’s walking or cycling patterns. For example, parental concern about road safety (e.g., lack of traffic lights or the number of roads that must be crossed) had a negative influence on children’s walking and cycling. They also found that older children (10 to12 years old) who perceived that they had poor access to parks, cycled and walked less than other children. Interestingly, Dr. Timperio and colleagues found discrepancies between children’s and parent’s perceptions of their local neighborhood—children, for example, were less concerned than their parents about heavy traffic, road safety, and strangers—however, parental perceptions were a bigger driver of children’s behavior than children’s perceptions. This study highlights the importance of the perceived neighborhood environment and its impact on parent and child behaviors.Timperio, A., Crawford, D., Telford, A., & Salmon, J. “Perceptions About the Local Neighborhood and Walking and Cycling Among Children.” Preventive Medicine, 38(1), 39-47, 2004. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased through the publisher (Elsevier).
VolumeThree – September 2008
This annotated bibliography updates research compiled in volume one and volume two of the Children & Nature Network (C&NN) research resources. The studies selected for this annotated bibliography are either reports of original research or syntheses of existing research. All studies meet criteria for scholarly excellence. This document includes a summary of each research report, a full citation, and information on each document’s availability. While this bibliography includes many notable studies, it is not exhaustive and recommendations are welcome on additional research to include. Please send suggestions to the attention of Cheryl Charles, Ph.D., President, Children & Nature Network, Cheryl@childrenandnature.org.Annotated Bibliography by Alicia Senauer Yale University
Contact with nature provides a variety of health benefits
In this report, C. Maller and colleagues reviewed published literature demonstrating health and well-being benefits from contact with nature, with an emphasis on park settings. Particularly in urban areas, parks play an important role in providing people with access to nature. The authors encourage a reframing of our traditional view of parks as places for leisure and sport towards one that emphasizes a full range of physical, mental, and social health benefits. Maller and colleagues provide valuable background material on the concept of health and the connection between nature and health. The authors then review evidence of the health benefits of various forms of contact with nature, including viewing nature, being in nature, contact with plants, and contact with animals. Maller and colleagues provide a number of recommendations, including the need for additional research, the repositioning of parks, and the integration of parks and nature into public health strategies and management actions.The authors present a number of useful summary tables, which provide quick access to major findings about the health benefits of contact with nature.
Maller, C., Townsend, M., St.Leger, L., Henderson-Wilson, C., Pryor, A., Prosser, L., and Moore, M. (2008). “The health benefits of contact with nature in a park context: A review of relevant literature.” Deakin University and Parks Victoria. The original 2002 review and annotated bibliography are available online at: http://www.parkweb.vic.gov.au/1process_content.cfm?section=99&page=16. The updated 2008 review is available for a nominal fee by contacting Mardie Townsend at mardie.townsend@deakin.edu Readers may also be interested in the following documents:
- [>] A fact sheet on the health benefits of the natural environment by the National Environmental Education Foundation.
- [>] An article by Howard Frumkin and Richard Louv about the important role natural landscapes play in protecting public health.
Play is critical to healthy child development
In this paper, Kenneth R. Ginsburg and colleagues review key health benefits that play provides to children, including the development of new competencies and decision-making skills, resiliency, and the ability to share with others and resolve conflicts. In addition, the authors highlight the importance of play to the development of strong parent-child relationships. While play offers many critical benefits, Ginsburg and colleagues review evidence highlighting the reduced opportunities many children today have for child-driven play. The authors discuss several key factors that have led to this decline and maintain that solutions to enhance child-driven play must be addressed at multiple levels (from families to communities to schools) and that each child will vary in his or her needs with regard to play and the balance between play and other activities. Ginsburg and colleagues conclude this paper with specific advice for pediatricians to enhance their ability to best guide and support parents.Ginsburg, K. R. (2007). “The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds.” Pediatrics, 119(1), 182-191.
Children’s play in natural settings provides a suite of benefits
In this report, Stuart Lester and Martin Maudsley provide an extensive review of the literature related to children’s natural play. The authors begin by examining the human relationship with the natural world and the importance of play and direct interaction with the physical environment to children. Lester and Maudsley then review the important opportunities that natural play provides, such as the creation of special places, and the numerous documented and potential benefits of children’s play in natural settings, including the development of a sense of self and independence. The authors discuss evidence demonstrating a decline in children’s access and opportunities to play in natural spaces and provide a range of suggestions to support children’s opportunities to play in natural settings, such as through the design of effective playgrounds, school grounds, and environmental play projects, as well as ensuring adequate access to parks and nature reserves.Lester, S., & Maudsley, M. (2006). “Play, naturally: A review of children's natural play.” Children's Play Council.
Childhood nature experiences may be an important pathway to adult environmental attitudes and behaviors
In this study, Nancy M. Wells and Kristi S. Lekies examine linkages between childhood nature experiences and adult environmental attitudes and behaviors. Data for this study were collected as part of a large telephone survey, which interviewed about 2,000 individuals, 18-90 years of age, in over 100 urban areas in the United States. In this survey, participants answered a number of questions about their nature-related experiences during childhood and their current environmental attitudes and behaviors. To analyze the survey data, Wells and Lekies used structural equation modeling, which enabled them to test complex relationships between childhood nature experiences and adult environmental attitudes and behaviors. In their analysis, the authors controlled for a number of socio-demographic variables (e.g., gender and race). Wells and Lekies found that childhood participation with “wild” nature (e.g., hiking, camping, or playing in the woods), had a significant, positive effect on both adult environmental attitudes and behaviors. That is, people who participated in “wild” nature activities as children were more likely to have pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors as adults. Additionally, Wells and Lekies found that childhood participation with “domesticated” nature (e.g., picking flowers or planting seeds), while having a significant, positive effect, did not have as great an influence as that of “wild” nature on environmental attitudes and had only a marginal effect on environmental behaviors. While additional research is needed to demonstrate causality between childhood experiences and adult environmental attitudes and behaviors, this study is one of the first to investigate the long-term impacts of childhood contact with nature and provides an important contribution to the field by demonstrating that early experiences with the natural environment, and specifically “wild” nature, may be an important pathway toward adult environmentalism.Wells, N. M., & Lekies, K. S. (2006). “Nature and the life course: Pathways from childhood nature experiences to adult environmentalism.” Children, Youth and Environments, 16(1).
The importance of designing spaces that support children’s contact with nature
In this book chapter, Robin Moore and Clare Cooper Marcus review health threats that face many of today’s children, including sedentary behavior and attention deficit disorder; the benefits that contact with nature provides to children’s mental, social, and physical health; and current barriers limiting children’s access to nature. The authors provide examples of designed environments, specifically in urban areas, that support children’s contact with nature, including examples of innovative childcare centers and preschools, school grounds, neighborhood parks, and community institutions. Moore and Marcus emphasize the importance of the residential environment and the need to understand and incorporate children’s ideas and preferences into the planning and design of spaces. The authors discuss four models of child-friendly residential neighborhood layouts with specific national and international case studies, including clustered housing and shared outdoor space, cul-de-sacs and greenways, alleys, and home zones. Moore and Marcus conclude by providing a number of key recommendations to help ensure children’s access to nature in residential environments.Moore, R. C., & Cooper Marcus, C. (2008). “Healthy planet, healthy children: Designing nature into the daily spaces of childhood.” In S. Kellert, J. Heerwagen & M. Mador (Eds.), Biophic design: Theory, science and practice. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hands-on outdoor learning benefits students
This report by Janet E. Dyment presents findings from her 2003 study on the impacts of green school ground initiatives at 45 elementary, middle, and high schools in the Toronto District School Board. As part of this study, Dyment surveyed nearly 150 parents, teachers, and principals about the impact of greening initiatives on a variety of outcomes, including curriculum delivery, student learning and academic achievement, teaching practices, and student behavior. The author also conducted in-depth interviews with 21 respondents from 5 schools. Despite the variety of schools studied, Dyment found a number of common benefits of greening initiatives. For example, 90% of respondents reported that student enthusiasm and engagement in learning increased on green school grounds as compared to teaching indoors and 70% of respondents reported that their motivation for teaching increased on green school grounds as compared to teaching indoors. Dyment also questioned participants about key challenges and opportunities for improvement with regard to green school ground initiatives. Commonly identified barriers included availability of funding and adequate logistical support and human resources. Respondents also provided a variety of suggestions for improvement, including professional development and training opportunities, assistance with physical design, and additional funding support for construction and maintenance. Importantly, this study demonstrates that the benefits of school ground greening initiatives are numerous and varied, and can be realized by different schools with a variety of different types of greening projects. Dyment concludes the report by providing a series of high-level policy recommendations to assist schools across Ontario in successfully implementing and realizing the full benefits of school ground greening initiatives.Dyment, J. (2005). “Gaining ground: The power and potential of school ground greening in the Toronto District School Board: Evergreen.”
Spending time outdoors, among other factors, is associated with higher levels of physical activity in preschool children
Physical activity provides important health benefits to children. Unfortunately, not much is known about the prevalence of preschool children’s physical activity levels and the factors that most influence physical activity in this age group. In this paper, T. Hinkley and colleagues review 24 studies published between 1980 and 2007 that investigated factors related to physical activity levels in preschool children. The authors examined a total of 39 different variables, such as gender and time spent outdoors, and coded the results to identify consistency/inconsistency across studies. In the end, Hinkley and colleagues found support for the following findings: 1) boys are more active than girls, 2) a child’s age and body mass index are not related to physical activity, 3) children who have parents that participate in physical activity with them are more active than children who have parents that do not participate with them in physical activity, and 4) children who spend more time outdoors are more active than children who spend less time outdoors. The authors also found that psychological, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral variables have not been studied enough to yield conclusive results with regard to their association to physical activity levels in preschool children. Hinkley and colleagues review the strengths and weaknesses of studies to date, compare their results to those found for older children and adolescents, and highlight future research needs in order to better understand the many factors that influence preschool children’s physical activity.Hinkley, T., Crawford, D., Salmon, J., Okely, A. D., & Hesketh, K. (2008). “Preschool children and physical activity - A review of correlates.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34(5), 435-441. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.elsevier.com Readers may also be interested in a 2000 review by Sallis and colleagues that summarizes research on correlates of physical activity behaviors in children and adolescents. Sallis, J. F., Prochaska, J. J., & Taylor, W. C. (2000). “A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(5), 963-975. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.ms-se.com/
Neighborhood parks play an important role in promoting physical activity in children
Although the American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended that children be physically active for at least 60 minutes a day and limit sedentary activity to less than 2 hours a day, many children do not meet these recommendations. In this article, Victoria Floriani and Christine Kennedy review the latest research findings with regard to the promotion of physical activity in children. For example, the authors discuss a number of studies which have found that access to a neighborhood park or playground is associated with higher levels of physical activity in children and that specific park amenities, such as lighting after dark, may be important in facilitating park use. Floriani and Kennedy also summarize research on sedentary behavior and how evidence, while often inconclusive, indicates that the less time children spend in sedentary behaviors, the more physically active they may be. In addition, the authors highlight recent research exploring the relationship between mental health and physical activity. While there is still much to be learned about this relationship, preliminary research has found a positive relationship between higher levels of physical activity and positive mental health outcomes, such as increased feelings of self-efficacy and confidence. Floriani and Kennedy conclude the article by encouraging pediatric health care providers to discuss physical activity with their patients and strategize with them on ways to incorporate activity into their daily lives.Readers may also be interested in the following recent articles that investigate specific factors related to physical activity in children and adolescents.
de Vries, S. I., Bakker, I., van Mechelen, W., & Hopman-Rock, M. (2007). “Determinants of activity-friendly neighborhoods for children: Results from the SPACE study.” American Journal of Health Promotion, 21(4), 312-316. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.healthpromotionjournal.com/
Roemmich, J. N., Epstein, L. H., Raja, S., & Yin, L. (2007). “The neighborhood and home environments: Disparate relationships with physical activity and sedentary behaviors in youth.” Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33(1), 29-38. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.springer.com/psychology/health+and+behavior/journal/12160
- [>] Floriani, V., & Kennedy, C. (2008). “Promotion of physical activity in children.” Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 20(1), 90-95
- [>] American Journal of Health Promotion
Street trees may help prevent early childhood asthma
The prevalence of childhood asthma in the U.S. has increased dramatically in the past 20 years and is particularly high in poor urban communities. While the exact cause for this increase remains unknown, environment and lifestyle changes are believed to be possible contributors. Trees may help prevent asthma by changing local air quality or by encouraging children to play outdoors, exposing them to a variety of microbes. In this study, G.S. Lovasi and colleagues investigate whether there is an association between street trees and childhood asthma by examining data, grouped by specific hospital geographic areas, on the prevalence of asthma for 4-year-old and 5-year-old children, hospitalizations as a result of asthma for children younger than 15, number of street trees, census data, and proximity to pollution sources. In analyzing the data, the authors found that higher street density was associated with a lower prevalence of childhood asthma, but that there was not a significant association between street trees and hospitalizations. In their analysis, Lovasi and colleagues controlled for a number of other factors that may have influenced the results, such as proximity to pollution sources and sociodemographic characteristics. Based on these findings, the authors estimate that an increase in tree density of 343 trees per square kilometer would be associated with a 29% lower prevalence of early childhood asthma. It is important to note that this analysis does not demonstrate that trees cause or prevent asthma for an individual child. While the results of this study are encouraging, additional research is needed to better understand the effects of trees on the prevalence of childhood asthma.Lovasi, G. S., Quinn, J. W., Neckerman, K. M., Perzanowski, M. S., & Rundle, A. (2008). “Children living in areas with more street trees have lower prevalence of asthma.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62(7), 647-649. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online.
Spending time outdoors helps prevent myopia in 12-year-olds
In recent decades, myopia or nearsightedness has become increasingly common in young children. While the cause(s) of myopia remain unknown, environmental factors, such as reading that requires children to focus at a close distance, are thought to play an important role. Using data from the Sydney, Australia Myopia study, Rose and colleagues investigate the relationship between near work, midworking distance, and outdoor activities with the prevalence of myopia in 6- and 12-year-old children. Between 2003 and 2005, 1,765 6-year-olds and 2,367 12-year-olds received a comprehensive eye exam and completed questionnaires about their activities during weekdays and weekends (parents completed the questionnaires for the 6-year-old children). The authors grouped children’s activities into near work (e.g., drawing and reading), midworking distance (e.g., watching television and using the computer), and outdoor activities (e.g., bicycle riding and outdoor sport). After adjusting for a number of potentially confounding factors (e.g., parental myopia and ethnicity), Rose and colleagues found that while there was no association between the prevalence of myopia and activity among 6-year-olds that higher levels of total time spent outdoors were associated with a lower prevalence of myopia among 12-year-olds. The authors found that 12-year-olds with the highest levels of near work activity and lowest levels of outdoor activity were two to three times more likely than their peers to develop myopia, whereas 12-year-olds with the lowest levels of near work activity and highest levels of outdoor activity were less likely than their peers to develop myopia. The authors also found that participation in sports did not seem to be a significant factor in explaining this protective effect. Rose and colleagues suggest that light intensity may be an important factor in explaining the impact of outdoor activity on the development of myopia and that additional research is needed to help understand this relationship.Rose, K. A., Morgan, I. G., Ip, J., Kifley, A., Huynh, S., Smith, W., et al. (2008). Outdoor activity reduces the prevalence of myopia in children. Ophthalmology, 115(8), 1279-1285. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online
Children with ADHD concentrate better after walking in a park
Building off of their recent work related to children with Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and different types of activity settings, in this study, Faber Taylor and Kuo investigate the impacts of three different outdoor environments on the attention of seventeen 7- to 12-year-old children diagnosed with ADHD. After completing a series of puzzles that required focused attention, each child, over the course of three different weeks, participated in a 20 minute guided walk in three different outdoor settings (an urban park, a downtown area, and a residential area). After each guided walk, children completed a concentration test and answered several questions about their walking experience. Importantly, the authors controlled for a number of potential confounding factors, including the order of environments experienced, the time of day and day of week, terrain, and season. In analyzing the data, Faber Taylor and Kuo found that children concentrated better after walking in a park setting as compared to either a downtown or residential setting and that the effect of walking in a park on concentration helped close the gap between children with ADHD and those without ADHD with regard to the concentration measure used and that the effect was similar to that of two common types of ADHD medication. In addition, the authors found that children rated their experiences more positively in the park setting than in the other two settings. Faber Taylor and Kuo discuss these findings in light of Attention Restoration Theory and their previous studies related to different environments and children with ADHD and suggest additional avenues for research and the potential of using nature in the treatment of ADHD.Faber Taylor, A., & Kuo, F. E. (2008). Children with attention deficits concentrate better after walk in the park. Journal of Attention Disorders OnlineFirst. This article will be published in print in 2009 and may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online at: http://jad.sagepub.com.
Childhood experiences in natural spaces are strong predictors of adult use and attitudes toward natural spaces
C.W. Thompson and colleagues investigate factors contributing to adult outdoor access and activity in two survey-based projects that explored people’s use and attitudes toward natural spaces near their homes in Central Scotland and the East Midlands of England. As part of these projects, the authors questioned a large and diverse sample of individuals (339 adults in Scotland and 459 in England) in public venues and green spaces to obtain information about their background, use and attitudes toward natural spaces, demographic status, and frequency of childhood visits to green spaces. In analyzing the survey data, Thompson and colleagues found that most people used natural spaces for walking and that over 35% of respondents visited woodlands at least once a week. Using a variety of statistical techniques, the authors examined which factors best explained the frequency with which adults visited natural spaces and found that frequency of childhood visits to natural spaces and distance from home to natural spaces were the most important factors. These results indicate that people who have had frequent childhood experiences in natural spaces are more likely to visit such places as adults. Thompson and colleagues also found that people who have had frequent childhood experiences in natural places tend to feel more comfortable visiting these places alone and have a more positive attitude towards these spaces as adults (e.g., they feel more energetic and restored in these spaces). The authors discuss several limitations to their study, including the possibility that adult memories of childhood may be distorted, and the implications their study findings might have given the increasing restrictions children face today with regard to outdoor access and play.Thompson, C. W., Aspinall, P., & Montarzino, A. (2008). “The childhood factor - Adult visits to green places and the significance of childhood experience. “ Environment and behavior, 40(1), 111-143. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://eab.sagepub.com/
Neighborhood safety influences children’s physical activity
Physical activity during childhood and adolescence provides many health benefits. In light of research suggesting that children are participating less frequently in active transport (e.g., walking and cycling), are spending less time outdoors, and that time spent outdoors is associated with increased physical activity, A. Carver and colleagues review research that investigates specific aspects of neighborhood safety and their association with the physical activity of children and adolescents. Studies to date have identified road safety and harm from strangers (or “stranger danger”) as being key concerns for parents. While evidence suggests that lower levels of neighborhood physical activity are associated with lack of perceived neighborhood safety, the authors found that more research is needed to examine specific associations between road safety and “stranger danger” on physical activity among children. Carver and colleagues also highlight studies examining differences between parents’ and children’s perceptions of neighborhood safety and the potential for parents to fall into various “social traps,” where by trying to protect their children, parents actually end up contributing to the problem. The authors review research related to physical and social interventions that have been implemented to improve neighborhood safety, including traffic calming initiatives (e.g., speed humps, reduced speed limits) and a Walking School Bus, and identify future research needs, including longitudinal studies to better explore associations and determine causality, objective measurement of safety, and investigation of specific aspects of neighborhood safety.Carver, A., Timperio, A., & Crawford, D. (2008). “Playing it safe: The influence of neighbourhood safety on children's physical activity - A review.” Health & Place, 14(2), 217-227. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.elsevier.com
As children get older they are less physically active
In this study, P.R. Nader and colleagues investigate physical activity patterns in youth from 9 to 15 years of age. The authors collected physical activity data using accelerometers for 1,032 youth over a 6-year period (starting when the children were 9 years old), as well as height, weight, and demographic information. Nader and colleagues were particularly interested in the amount of time youth engaged in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) as experts currently recommend that youth engage in at least 60 minutes per day of MVPA. In analyzing the data, the authors found that youth spent significantly less time engaged in MVPA as they got older. For example, at 9 years of age, youth engaged in MVPA for about 3 hours a day on weekdays and weekends, whereas at 15 years of age, adolescents engaged in MVPA for 49 minutes a day on weekdays and 35 minutes a day on weekends. Consequently, the percentage of children who met the recommended activity guidelines of 60 minutes of MVPA per day decreased significantly with age. While almost all 9- and 11-year-old children met the guidelines, only 31% of 15 year-olds met the guidelines on weekdays and only 17% of 15 year olds met the guidelines on weekends. Nader and colleagues found that boys tended to be more active than girls and that girls fell below the recommended activity guidelines at a younger age than boys (13.1 years versus 14.7 for weekdays and 12.6 years versus 13.4 for the weekends). The authors conclude by discussing study limitations and future research needs, including investigation into the amount of MVPA needed to positively impact child health and the environmental factors that impact MVPA.Nader, P. R., Bradley, R. H., Houts, R. M., McRitchie, S. L., & O'Brien, M. (2008). “Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years.” Jama - Journal Of The American Medical Association, 300(3), 295-305. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://jama.ama-assn.org/ Readers may also be interested in a recent assessment conducted in Texas schools of physical fitness levels among nearly 2.6 million students in grades 3-12. This assessment found that elementary-age children were the most physically fit and that fitness levels declined with each increase in grade level. While a report is not currently available, the press release for this assessment can be found online at: http://www.tea.state.tx.us/press/08fitnessresults.pdf
There is an on-going national movement away from nature-based recreation
As a follow-up to their recent work demonstrating about a 25% decline in per capita visits to U.S. National Parks between 1987 and 2003, in this study, Oliver R.W. Pergams and Patricia A. Zaradic test whether this decline in U.S. National Park visits is an isolated incident or a good indicator with regard to how much people are visiting natural areas more generally. The authors examined 16 large national and international nature-related visitor and activity data sets, including visitation to Japanese national parks, recreational visits to all U.S. state parks, and total number of U.S. hunting and fishing licenses. In analyzing these data sets, Pergams and Zaradic found that nature-based recreation peaked between 1981 and 1991, and has been declining at a rate of between 1 and 1.3% per year since this peak, for a total decline of 18-25% to date. The similarities among these multiple and different measures suggest a general decline in visits to natural areas in the U.S. and potentially in other countries, such as Japan. It is important to note that the impact of this decline varies for each variable. For example, many more people visit National Parks per year than finish the Appalachian Trail. The authors found that the most popular nature-based recreation activity in the U.S. is camping, followed by fishing and hunting, all of which show a declining trend. Pergams and Zaradic found only one countertrend to nature use decline: a slight increase in hiking and backpacking. While the cause(s) for this over-arching decline requires further investigation, this study demonstrates a fundamental shift away from visits to natural areas, with potentially important implications for health, well-being, and conservation.Pergams, O. R. W., & Zaradic, P. A. (2008). “Evidence for a fundamental and pervasive shift away from nature-based recreation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(7), 2295-2300.
Children’s street play has declined and is threatened by a number of barriers
Playday, an annual celebration of children’s right to play, commissioned a series of four studies in the United Kingdom (UK) related to children’s play in streets and areas near their homes. These four studies are summarized briefly below.• ICM Research interviewed over 2,000 children, youth, and adults across the UK by telephone about various aspects of street play. While it can be difficult to compare adult memories of childhood to children’s current day experiences, the survey found that 71% of adults reported playing near their home everyday when they were a child as compared to just 21% of children today. A few key additional findings include: 1) about 1 in 4 children and young people reported that traffic prevents them from playing close to home, 2) adults consider traffic, “stranger danger,” and other fears (e.g., property damage) as the primary barriers to neighborhood play, and 3) the street is the second most common place to play outside the home (parks are the most common place).
• ICM held a series of focus groups to investigate adult attitudes toward street play (a total of 32 adults participated). The results from this study stress the benefits that play provides and reveal the many interconnected factors that negatively influence children’s outdoor play, including loss of green space, intolerant adults, the appeal of indoor activities, and youth crime.
• Dr. Amanda Henshall and Lauren Lacey used focus groups to investigate children and young people’s views about playing on local streets (a total of 64 children between the ages of 8 and 18 participated). A few findings include: 1) while the majority of participants reported using streets and areas around their home to play, 10 of the 64 children said that they had never played outside in areas near their home, 2) children and youth valued spending time outside near their homes because it allowed them to spend time with friends and engage in activities that were not structured or under adult supervision, and 3) participants reported fear of crime and other adults (e.g., neighbors) as barriers to playing around their homes.
• Lacey developed a literature review of UK-based studies to date related to the frequency and amount of children’s play around the home, barriers to children’s play, and initiatives to encourage children’s use of streets for play.
Young children are growing up in a media-saturated environment
In this study, E.A. Vandewater and colleagues investigate young children’s media use in the United States. Data were collected by the Kaiser Family Foundation and included telephone interviews with over 1,000 parents of children aged 6 months to 6 years from a variety of demographic backgrounds. Vandewater and colleagues found that over 98% of the families surveyed owned at least one television and that the average number of working televisions was over 2.5 per household. In addition, the researchers found that many children had a television in their bedroom, including 18% of 0- to 2-year-olds and 43% of 3- to 4-year-olds. The most common reasons parents provided for having a television in their child’s bedroom were to allow other family members to watch their own shows and to keep their child occupied. With regard to frequency of electronic media and technology use, Vandewater and colleagues found that most children watch some television everyday and the length of viewing averaged 1 hour and 10 minutes across age groups. While television is the dominant source of children’s media use, the authors also report results related to videos or DVDs, video games, and computer use. In determining whether children met the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) media-use recommendations, Vandewater and colleagues found that only 32% of 0- to 2-year-olds met the AAP recommendation of no television, while 56% of 3- to 4-year-olds and 70% of 5 to 6-year-olds met the AAP recommendation of 2 hours or less of television per day. In examining various factors that might influence whether children fell within or outside of these guidelines, the authors found that media factors (e.g., whether there was a television in a child’s bedroom) were significant predictors at all ages and that certain demographic factors (family structure and child gender) were important predictors for older children. In addition, Vandewater and colleagues found that there were no differences in the time children spent reading or playing outdoors between those who met the AAP guidelines and those who did not. The authors conclude the article by emphasizing the importance of additional research aimed at better understanding children’s electronic media use and its potential impact on children’s development.Vandewater, E. A., Rideout, V. J., Wartella, E. A., Huang, X., Lee, J. H., & Shim, M. S. (2007). “Digital childhood: Electronic media and technology use among infants, toddlers, and preschoolers.” Pediatrics, 119(5), E1006-E1015. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.elsevier.com Readers may also be interested in the following paper by Patricia Zaradic and Oliver Pergams that discusses videophilia (a term developed by the authors to describe people’s increasing use of electronic media) and its implications for child health and development, as well as conservation. Zaradic, P. A., & Pergams, O. R. W. (2007). Videophilia: Implications for childhood development and conservation. The Journal of Developmental Processes, 2(1), 130-147. This paper is available online at: http://www.videophilia.org/origins.html
Prevalence of overweight among children and adolescents did not change between 2003-2006
Recent research found an increase in the prevalence of overweight among children between 1998 and 2004. In this study, C.L. Ogden and colleagues investigate the prevalence and trends in overweight among children between 2003 and 2006. As part of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, height and weight measurements, as well as basic demographic information, were obtained for over 8,000 children and adolescents. From these measurements, researchers calculated each participant’s Body mass index (BMI) and categorized it according to the Centers for Disease Control BMI-for-age growth charts. In analyzing data for 2003-06, Ogden and colleagues found 11.3% of children and adolescents were at or above the 97th percentile of BMI, 16.3% had a BMI at or above the 95% percentile, and 31.9% had a BMI at or above the 85th percentile. In addition, the authors found that high BMI differed significantly by age and racial/ethnic group, but did not differ by sex. For example, 2- to 5-year-olds were significantly less likely to have high BMI than 12- to 19-year-olds. Ogden and colleagues investigated changes over time and found no significant changes in the prevalence of high BMI between 2003-04 and 2005-06. Additional data will be helpful in further investigating any trends.Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., & Flegal, K. M. (2008). “High body mass index for age among U.S. children and adolescents, 2003-2006.” Jama-Journal of The American Medical Association, 299(20), 2401-2405. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher.
With economic growth comes loss of ecological knowledge
Ecological knowledge, accumulated knowledge about nature, is an important factor in people’s ability to manage and conserve the environment. S.E. Pilgrim and colleagues conducted a cross-cultural, large-scale study to investigate whether there is an association between economic growth and ecological knowledge. The authors examined two levels of ecological knowledge (the names of living components of ecosystems and the functions and uses of these components) within a diversity of communities from India, Indonesia, and the United Kingdom. Using ethnobotanical surveys with photographs of local species, Pilgrim and colleagues interviewed more than 1,000 people across the three countries, documenting their ability to identify local plant species and their uses. The authors found a strong negative correlation between ecological knowledge and income levels—as income increased, ecological knowledge decreased. They also found that as a community’s wealth increased, the difference in knowledge between the most and least knowledgeable community members and the difference between old and young people’s knowledge increased. These findings suggest that as communities become wealthier, ecological knowledge becomes concentrated in fewer people and that these people tend to be either older members of the community or experts. Pilgrim and colleagues caution that as more of the world becomes urbanized, ecological knowledge will become increasingly threatened, communities’ connectivity to their local environment more distant, and the capacity of local communities to manage their environment will decline. This study has important implications for conservation efforts and demonstrates the importance of protecting the knowledge and capacities of local people.Pilgrim, S. E., Cullen, L. C., Smith, D. J., & Pretty, J. (2008). “Ecological knowledge is lost in wealthier communities and countries.” Environmental Science & Technology, 42(4), 1004-1009. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://pubs.acs.org/
Children can identify few local species
Knowing about one’s environment is an important foundation to being able to understand various issues and act in an informed and responsible manner. In a recent study, BBC Wildlife Magazine asked 700 children between the ages of 9 and 11 from 17 schools in Bristol (United Kingdom) to identify a number of local wild species. The magazine also asked participants a number of questions related to wildlife and their activities more generally. While 70% of children could correctly identify blackberry and magpie, only 8% could identify goldfinch and 12% a primrose. Additional research is needed to better understand this study’s findings and whether or not these numbers might represent a significant lack of or decline in environmental knowledge.
Schoolyards are dominated by turf grass and impervious surface
Increasingly, research is demonstrating the benefits that greenspace can provide to children’s health and well-being and to environmental quality (e.g., reduced urban runoff and moderation of climate). Children spend about one third of their day at school; however, little is known about the actual physical structure of school property. In this study, Alexis Schulman and Catherine A. Peters classified and compared landcover on 258 U.S. public elementary and middle schoolyards in three major U.S. cities (Baltimore, Boston, and Detroit). The authors used aerial photographs from the mid- to late 1990s and Geographic Information System software to classify and analyze schoolyard landcover. Schulman and Peters found that, on average, schoolyards covered more than 68% of the school property and that they were dominated by turf grass and impervious surface, with very little tree cover (on average, less than 10%). The authors also found that schoolyard size had an important influence on cover type in that larger schoolyards tended to have lower levels of impervious surface. Schulman and Peters contend that the amount of tree cover found in most schoolyards is inadequate given health and environmental quality research findings to date. In concluding their article, the authors discuss important opportunities and obstacles to greening schoolyards and provide a number of recommendations.Schulman, A., & Peters, C. A. (2008). “GIS analysis of urban schoolyard landcover in three U.S. cities.” Urban ecosystems, 11(1), 65-80.
Many children and adolescents are vitamin D deficient
Worldwide, there is a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among infants, children, and adolescents. Vitamin D deficiency is a risk factor for rickets and may be a risk factor for development of a number of chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In this paper, S.Y. Huh and C.M. Gordon review the sources of vitamin D, which includes endogenous synthesis (the first step of which is the absorption of ultraviolet B radiation), how vitamin D deficiency is defined and measured, and the prevalence of and risk factors for vitamin D deficiency, which includes reduced sun exposure. In addition, the authors review the health effects of vitamin D deficiency and its prevention and treatment. Huh and Gorden stress the importance of additional research to determine the optimum concentration of vitamin D for children of different ages and to compare different regimens designed to prevent and treat vitamin D deficiency as well as to better understand short and long-term impacts on critical health outcomes.Huh, S. Y., & Gordon, C. M. (2008). “Vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, impact and treatment.” Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders, 9(2), 161-170.
Many children experience limits on their adventurous play
Playday, an annual celebration of children’s right to play, commissioned a series of four studies in the United Kingdom (UK) on risk and play to better understand the benefits and challenges of enabling children to manage their own risks while playing. These four studies are summarized briefly below.• ICM Research interviewed over 1,000 children (aged 7-16) and over 1,000 adults (aged 18+) across the UK by telephone about various aspects of risk and play. A few of the findings from the children’s survey include that 51% of children (aged 7-12) reported that they are not allowed to climb a tree without an adult present and 42% reported that they are not allowed to play in local parks without an adult. In addition, they found that 77% of children would like more opportunities to take risks while playing and that this type of play makes 90% of children feel happy. While it can be difficult to directly compare adult memories of childhood to children’s current day experiences, the survey also found that 1) 70% of adults experienced most of their adventurous play in natural environments when they were children whereas only 29% of children today experience most of their adventurous play in natural environments and 2) while both adults (when they were young) and children today found bike riding/skateboarding and exploring new/unfamiliar places to be among the most adventurous activities, adults also found playing with nature to be among the most adventurous while children today identified electronic/computer games. Adult respondents identified an increasing concern with health and safety regulations and a perception of it being more dangerous for children to play as being key reasons why there has been a decline in opportunities for children to challenge themselves while playing.
• Denise Coster and Josie Gleave used focus groups to investigate children and young people’s experiences and perceptions of risk in play (a total of 62 children and young people aged 8-13 participated). In this report, the authors explore the risks and challenges children and young people take, the nature of these risks, how children think about risk, the benefits of risk taking, and opportunities and constraints on engaging in adventurous play. Some of their findings include that children and young people enjoy and benefit from taking risks; the majority of these risks occur outside; more risks are taken when adults are not present; risks can occur in either organized, commercial, or unstructured play situations; and that children tended to focus more in discussions on managed and commercially provided risks than unstructured play situations.
• Paul Greatorex conducted a survey and focus groups to investigate play providers’ experience and views on adventurous play (a total of 144 survey respondents). In this report, he describes play providers’ opinions on a range of issues, such as whether there are sufficient opportunities for challenging play, the benefits of risk in play, barriers to challenging play, and ways to provide more opportunities for challenging play. Some of the key findings highlighted in this report include: 1) 92% of respondents felt that there were not enough play opportunities that allowed children to engage in challenging activities, 2) 97% of respondents felt that it was acceptable for children to engage in activities where the risk involved minor and easily recovered injuries, but that the limits of acceptable risk in play depended on the nature of each individual child, 3) respondents identified fear of litigation, insufficient resources, and restrictions by insurers and health and safety officers as the key barriers to providing more challenging play, and 4) respondents identified a more realistic view of risk, better design of play areas, and training as key ways to increase play opportunities involving challenge and risk.
• Gleave developed a literature review on the benefits of risk-taking in play, attitudes towards risk in play, the nature of risk-taking behavior and accidents and injuries associated with play, risk management in play, and policies related to play.
New survey tracks children’s outdoor behavior
Despite growing interest in children’s outdoor behavior, we know very little about how much time children spend outdoors. In 2007, Cordell and colleagues started the National Kids Survey to improve our understanding of how much time children spend outdoors and the activities that they engage in while outside. Data is collected via a random-digit-dialed telephone survey of the general population. As part of this survey, researchers interview a parent/guardian of children under 16-years-old or 16- to 19-year-old teenagers to gather information on outdoor behavior. To date, the survey has been implemented two times—fall-summer 2007/08 and summer-spring 2008/09. In analyzing data from these surveys, Cordell and colleagues present a number of findings in a series of three reports. A few of the researchers’ key findings include: 1) over the two survey periods, about 61% of children were reported to spend two or more hours outdoors on a typical weekday and about 77% were reported to spend two or more hours outdoors on a typical weekend day; 2) more younger children (6- to 15-years-old) were reported to spend 2 or more hours outdoors as compared to older children (16- to 19-years-old) and more Hispanic children were reported to spend 4 or more hours per day outdoors on weekends as compared to white or black children; 3) the most popular outdoor activity reported was “just playing or hanging out outdoors” at 83% followed by “biking, jogging, walking, skate boarding, etc.” at 79%; 4) almost 40% of respondents reported that children spent more time outside now as compared to the same time last year; and 5) in examining changes between survey periods, there was a slight, but statistically significant decline in the percentage of children that spent no time outdoors on weekend days. While this study may be limited due to its reliance on self or proxy report, it provides an important contribution to the literature as it is collecting and examining data on a large number of children over multiple years. Additional data are needed to make robust conclusions about changes in children’s time spent outside and to understand factors causing any observed trends.Cordell, K. H., Betz, C. J., & Green, G. T. (2009). National kids survey. Internet Research Information Series. These reports are available online at: http://warnell.forestry.uga.edu/nrrt/nsre/IrisReports.html
Technology may help engage children in outdoor activities
Chavez conducted an exploratory study to investigate the role of technology in supporting or enhancing children’s outdoor experiences. As part of Youth Day in Los Angeles, CA 38 six- to seventeen-year-old children participated in four activities—two were technology-based (a camera safari and geocaching for treasure) and two were not technology-based (nature rubbings and a nature scavenger hunt). All children participated in each of the four activities and voted on how much they liked each activity. In addition, adult observers and trained facilitators provided feedback on children’s participation in each activity. In analyzing the data, Chavez found that all activities received a majority of positive votes, but that technology dependent activities received a higher percentage of positive votes as compared to non-technology dependent activities. While there are a number of factors that could have influenced these findings, such as participant age and the specific activities selected, this study suggests that technology may help engage children in outdoor activities.Chavez, D. J. (2009). Youth day in Los Angeles: evaluating the role in technology in children's nature activities. Children, Youth and Environments, 19(1), 102-124
Update: Benefits to children from contact with nature
This section reviews research from 2008-2009 focused on the physical, mental, and social benefits that contact with nature provides to children. This section also highlights research on related factors that provide insight on this topic. Research is grouped into several main focal areas.
Volume Four
This annotated bibliography updates research compiled in volumes one through three of the Children & Nature Network (C&NN) research resources, with an emphasis on research published in 2008-2009 in two primary areas: 1) benefits to children from contact with nature and 2) children’s experience of nature. The studies selected for this annotated bibliography are either reports of original research or syntheses of existing research. All studies meet criteria for scholarly excellence. This document includes a summary of each research report, information on author affiliations, a full citation, and information on each document’s availability. While this bibliography includes many notable studies, it is not exhaustive and recommendations are welcome on additional research to include. Please send suggestions to the attention of Cheryl Charles, Ph.D., President and CEO, Children & Nature Network, Cheryl@childrenandnature.org.
Greenspace supports children’s quality of life
Bell and colleagues critically review the last 10 years of research that has examined relationships between greenspace and quality of life. Major areas reviewed in this report are: health and well-being, social and community value, economic value/impacts, environmental value, and planning and design. Research related to children is one of the main topics highlighted in the various sections of this report. In their review, Bell and colleagues also discuss their criteria for article inclusion, highlight methodological limitations of studies conducted to date, and identify key research gaps.Author Affiliation: The authors are with the OPENspace research center in the UK.
Bell, S., Hamilton, V., Montarzino, A., Rothnie, H., Travlou, P., & Alves, S. (2008). Greenspace and quality of life: a critical literature review. Greenspace Scotland. This report is available online at: http://www.greenspacescotland.org.uk/default.asp?page=465
Time spent outdoors supports many aspects of children’s health
In this report, Muñoz reviews literature concerning the linkage between spending time outdoors and health, with a primary emphasis on research related to children. She reviews research and policy related to outdoor use and health more generally and then takes an in-depth look at topics related to children’s use of the outdoors and relationships to their health. Specific topics Muñoz examines include research linking children’s time spent outdoors to increased physical activity, healthy development, and overall well-being. She also examines research related to the design of children’s play spaces, access to natural spaces, the use of outdoors in children’s education, and research related to people and factors that constrain and enable children’s outdoor play. Finally, in concluding her literature review, Muñoz identifies methodological considerations, research gaps, and provides suggestions for advancing knowledge in this area.Author Affiliation: Muñoz is with the Sustainable Development Research Centre in Scotland. Muñoz, S. A. (2009). Children in the outdoors: a literature review. Sustainable Development Research Centre. This report is available online at: http://www.countrysiderecreation.org.uk/Children%20Outdoors.pdf
Children’s classroom behavior is better if they have recess
Recess provides one of the few opportunities for children to engage in free play and physical activity at school and to potentially be outdoors. Barros and colleagues investigated the amount of recess 8- to 9-year-old children have in the U.S. and compared the classroom behavior of children who receive and do not receive daily recess. The researchers analyzed data from a nationally representative sample of over 10,000 third-grade children in public and private schools. As part of this study, a wide range of data was collected, including interviews with children and surveys of teachers, parents, and school administrators. In analyzing the data, Barros and colleagues found that 30% of children had no recess at all or less than a 15 minute daily break. The researchers found that children with less than 15 minutes of recess a day were significantly more likely to be black or Hispanic, live in a large- or medium-sized city, live in the South, attend public school, and come from families with lower income and less parental education. In examining school behavior, Barros and colleagues found that teachers’ rating of overall classroom behavior was better for children with some recess as compared to those with none/minimal break, however, the frequency and amount of recess was not significant. While data from teachers could be biased due to their feelings about recess, this study provides valuable information about the amount of recess 8- to 9-year-old children receive and relationships to classroom behavior.Author Affiliation: The authors are with the Children’s Hospital at Montefiore and Rose F. Kennedy Center in New York. Barros, R. M., Silver, E. J., & Stein, R. E. K. (2009). School recess and group classroom behavior. Pediatrics, 123(2), 431-436. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.jpeds.com/
Allocating time to physical activity in school does not negatively impact academic achievement
Over the years, there has been much discussion about the benefits and drawbacks of allocating time to physical activity in schools. In this article, Trudeau and Shepherd review the literature with regard to the relationships between physical education, school-based physical activity, school sports, and academic performance. Based on their review of a number of quasi-experimental and cross-sectional studies, the authors conclude that physical activity can be added to the school curriculum without negatively impacting children’s academic achievement. The authors highlight literature which indicates that additional time spent in physical activity may in fact result in small increases in students’ grade point averages and more efficient learning in the classroom. In addition, Trudeau and Shepherd summarize studies that have found positive associations between physical activity in school and children’s physical fitness, concentration, memory, behavior, and school satisfaction. The authors summarize supporting mechanistic evidence from the neurosciences and highlight the need for additional research to further clarify relationships between academic performance and school-based physical activity.Author Affiliation: Trudeau is with the Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières in Canada. Shephard is with the University of Toronto in Canada. Trudeau, F., & Shephard, R. J. (2008). Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 5, 12. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.ijbnpa.org/
School gardens positively impact children’s learning and behavior
Gardening takes place in many schools throughout the nation. Blair reviews research in the U.S. on school gardening and its relationship to children’s learning and behavior. She begins her review by highlighting the range of reasons why school gardens exist, which include providing children experiences with natural ecosystems, enhancing children’s understanding of food systems, helping children develop environmental attitudes and behaviors, and serving as a basis for experiential learning. Blair then reviews quantitative and qualitative studies on the impact of school gardening on children’s learning and behavior. Of the 12 quantitative studies reviewed, she found that 9 of the 12 studies found significant and positive impacts of gardening with regard to test measures, which included children’s science achievement and food consumption behavior. Of the 7 qualitative studies reviewed, Blair found a number of commonalities among study findings, including that students enjoyed and were highly motivated by gardening; students demonstrated improved school attitude and pride in the garden; and gardening enhanced student bonding, teamwork, and learning opportunities. In addition, she reviewed studies that evaluated principals’ and teachers’ opinions about school gardens. Based on her review of the literature, Blair determined that, overall, current research indicates that gardening can have a positive impact on student achievement and behavior. She also discusses the methodological limitations of current studies and provides recommendations for future research.Author Affiliation: Blair is with Penn State University. Blair, D. (2009). The child in the garden: an evaluative review of the benefits of school gardening. Journal of Environmental Education, 40(2), 15-38. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.heldref.org/pubs/jee/about.html
Natural views from high school positively impact students’ academic achievement and behavior
Matsuoka examined the relationship between views of nature and high school students’ academic achievement and behavior. To investigate this relationship, he inventoried the landscape features of 101 high school campuses in southeastern Michigan and assessed student access to these features via building characteristics and school policies (e.g., through window size and the ability to eat lunch outdoors). Matsuoka also gathered information about each school’s student academic achievement and conduct (e.g., the percentage of merit award winners and graduation rates). In analyzing the data, he found that landscape and access characteristics were significantly associated with student academic achievement and behavior. For example, Matsuoka found that schools with larger windows and more views of natural elements had students with higher standardized test scores, higher graduation rates, and a greater percentage of students planning to attend college, as well as fewer reports of criminal behavior. He also found that schools that allowed students to eat outside or off campus had higher test scores and a greater percentage of students planning to attend college. In examining specific landscape features, Matsuoka found that trees and shrubs needed to be relatively close to the students to provide academic achievement and behavior benefits. Importantly, Matsuoka controlled for a number of socio-demographic and general school characteristics in his analyses. While this study may be limited due to its cross-sectional design and focus on school-level information, it provides valuable insight into the benefits of natural views to high school students with implications for school design and policy.Author Affiliation: Matsuoka is with the University of Michigan. Matsuoka, R. H. (2008). High school landscapes and student performance. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. This study is available online at: http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/61641
Real field trips provide better overall learning environments than virtual field trips
Learning today often involves the use of technology. In this study, Harrington compares 12 nine- to eleven-year-old students’ experiences on a real and virtual field trip. Two groups of students (6 each) from a Pittsburgh public elementary school went on a real and virtual field trip to a local wildflower reserve. Data were gathered from knowledge tests, video and audiotape recordings, photographs, interviews, surveys, and observations. In analyzing the data, Harrington found that while more students preferred the virtual field trip, students felt that they learned more from the real field trip. In examining the field trips with regard to curriculum learning impact, however, she found no differences between the two trips in terms of children’s performance on a specific knowledge post-test. In terms of participants’ views, Harrington found that students’ reported that the real field trip was better than the virtual field trip with regard to learning, inquiry, and presence. With regard to the other dimensions examined—exploration, desire to create, sense of excitement, level of curiosity, desire to re-experience, sense of calm, desire to share, awe and wonder, assessment of beauty, level of frustration, and disinterest—she found no statistical difference in student ratings between the real and virtual field trips. Many students reported that they liked “spotting plants” or “being in the context of the environment” on the real field trip, while students reported that they liked the “ability to fly” or “use their imagination” on the virtual field trip. Overall, Harrington found that the real field trip provided a chance for students to use all their senses and for spontaneous events to occur and instigate investigation and learning (e.g., finding a salamander), while the virtual field trip provided students with new views of the environment and enabled individual exploration. As a result of this study, Harrington concluded that a virtual field trip can be used successfully as part of a curriculum, but that a real trip provides a superior learning environment that goes beyond specific curriculum-based learning. While this study may be limited due to its small sample size, it provides important insight into the complementary value of real and virtual-based learning opportunities, as well as ideas on how to improve both types of experiences for students.Author Affiliation: Harrington is with the University of Pittsburgh. Harrington, M. C. R. (2009). An ethnographic comparison of real and virtual reality field trips to Trillium Trail: the salamander find as a salient event. Children, Youth and Environments, 19(1), 74-101. This article is available online at: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/index_issues.htm.
Older children who spend more time outside tend to be more physically active and are less likely to be overweight
Cleland and colleagues investigated whether the amount of time children spend outdoors is related to their physical activity levels and being overweight. About 200 five- to six-year-old and 350 ten- to twelve-year-old children from 19 randomly selected elementary schools in Melbourne, Australia participated in this study. In 2001 and 2004, parents reported the amount of time their children spent outdoors and researchers recorded children’s physical activity levels using an accelerometer and measured children’s weight and height. In their paper, Cleland and colleagues report many findings, some of which are discussed below. The researchers found, for example, that children spent significantly more time outdoors during warmer months as compared to cooler months; boys had significantly higher levels of moderate and vigorous physical activity (MVPA) on weekdays than girls; the prevalence of overweight increased significantly between 2001 and 2004 for both younger and older children, as well as boys and girls; and among the older children, boys generally spent significantly more time outside than girls. Cleland and colleagues also found that older children who spent more time outside were generally more physically active and had a lower prevalence of overweight than children who spent less time outside. For example, the researchers found that each additional hour older girls spent outside during the cooler months was associated with an extra 26.5 minutes per week of MVPA and that each additional hour older boys spent outside during the cooler months was associated with an extra 21 minutes of MVPA. When examining changes over the three-year period, Cleland and colleagues found that the more time older girls and boys spent outside on weekends at baseline (2001), the higher their MVPA on weekends at follow-up (2004). In addition, the researchers found that in 2004, the prevalence of overweight among older children was 27-41% lower for those children who spent more time outside in 2001. With regard to younger children, Cleland and colleagues found few associations between time spent outdoors, physical activity, and overweight. While this study may be limited due to its reliance on parental self-report of children’s time spent outside, the cross-sectional and longitudinal nature of this study and objective measurement of physical activity provide an important contribution to the literature. The results of this study suggest that encouraging 10- to 12-year-old children to spend more time outdoors may help increase physical activity levels and reduce the prevalence of overweight.Author Affiliation: Cleland, Crawford, Hume, Timperio, and Salmon are with Deakin University in Australia. Baur is with the University of Sydney in Australia. Cleland, V., Crawford, D., Baur, L. A., Hume, C., Timperio, A., & Salmon, J. (2008). A prospective examination of children's time spent outdoors, objectively measured physical activity and overweight. International Journal of Obesity, 32(11), 1685-1693. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.nature.com/ijo/index.htm
Green school grounds improve quantity and quality of elementary school children’s physical activity
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in greening school grounds to diversify children’s play experiences, such as through the planting of trees, building of ponds, and development of vegetable gardens. Dyment and Bell investigated how green school grounds affect the physical activity of elementary school children by sending questionnaires to a diversity of Canadian schools that had greened their school grounds. Questionnaires were completed by 105 individuals from 59 schools who had been involved in their school’s greening project. In analyzing the study data, Dyment and Bell found that green areas were an important place for physical activity: respondents reported that 66% of students use green areas for active play. Interestingly, the researchers found that green areas tended to support more moderate and light activity as opposed to the more vigorous activity that generally takes place in traditional turf and asphalt areas. Dyment and Bell found that nearly 50% of the respondents reported that their school ground promotes more vigorous activity after greening, while about 70% reported more moderate and/or light physical activity taking place after greening. In addition, the researchers found that 90% of respondents reported that their school ground appeals to a wider variety of student interests after greening; 85% reported that their school ground now supports a wider variety of play activities; and 84% reported that since greening, their school ground encourages more exploration of the natural world. While this study may be limited due to its reliance on retrospective self-report, it provides important insight into the benefits of green school grounds and their potentially significant role in complementing more traditional school ground areas and improving the quality and quality of elementary school children’s physical activity.Author Affiliation: Dyment is with the University of Tasmania in Australia. Bell is with Evergreen in Canada. Dyment, J. E., & Bell, A. C. (2008). Grounds for movement: green school grounds as sites for promoting physical activity. Health Education Research, 23(6), 952-962. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://her.oxfordjournals.org/
Schoolyard size and landscape quality influence children’s satisfaction and weight
Outdoor school grounds are an important environment to consider when striving to promote children’s physical activity and reduce childhood obesity. In this study, Ozdemir and Yilmaz investigate linkages between the physical characteristics of children’s schoolyard environments and their attitudes, physical activity, and body mass index (BMI). The researchers interviewed nearly 300 3rd and 4th grade students, as well as teachers, and administrators in five public schools in Ankara, Turkey. Ozdemir and Yilmaz also measured students’ weight and height, and had professionals assess the schoolyard environment based on factors such as size, material, vegetation cover, and maintenance. Although schoolyards differed, the researchers found that students generally had no direct contact with vegetation and that the amount of outdoor space was limited given the number of students using the space. While most students were satisfied with their schoolyard, which the researchers speculate may be due to acclimation, unsatisfied students highlighted the lack of trees and greenery as the primary reason for their dissatisfaction. Among their many findings, Ozdemir and Yilmaz report that the size of the schoolyard was significantly related to students’ BMI, with students in larger yards having lower BMI values than students in smaller yards. The researchers also found that yard landscape characteristics were significantly associated with children’s BMI values, but in the opposite direction than expected: students from schools with “advanced” landscape features had higher BMI values than students from schools with “low” landscape features, although BMI values were still in the normal range. While this study may be limited due to its relatively small sample size and reliance on self-report measures, it highlights the importance of participatory and well-thought-out school landscape design, as well as the need for adequate financing and maintenance of schoolyards.Author Affiliation: The authors are with Ankara University in Turkey. Ozdemir, A., & Yilmaz, O. (2008). Assessment of outdoor school environments and physical activity in Ankara's primary schools. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(3), 287-300. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622872/description#description
Children in greener neighborhoods have lower body weight changes
Bell and colleagues examined the medical records of 4,000 three- to sixteen-year-old children that lived in Marion County, Indiana, received care from a particular clinic network between 1996 and 2002, had height and weight measurements for two consecutive years, and lived at the same residential address for at least two years. The majority of participants in this study were non-Hispanic black and enrolled in Medicaid (an indicator of socioeconomic status). Bell and colleagues geo-coded each participant’s address using a Geographic Information System and measured greenness at these locations using satellite images and a vegetation index. The researchers speculated that neighborhood greenness might serve as an indicator of children’s access to spaces that promote physical activity or increased time outside. In analyzing the study data, Bell and colleagues found that the amount of vegetation in a child’s neighborhood was inversely correlated with their Body Mass Index (BMI) score at the year two measurement. That is, in general, the more vegetation a child had in their neighborhood, the lower their body weight changes. The researchers also found that children in more vegetated settings were less likely to have a higher BMI over 2 years as compared to children in less vegetated settings. Importantly, Bell and colleagues controlled for a number of other factors in their analyses, such as residential density. While the study is observational and thus cannot causally link neighborhood greenness and body weight changes, this research highlights the role that neighborhood vegetation could play in policies and programs aimed at preventing childhood obesity.Author Affiliation: Bell is with the University of Washington. Wilson is with Indiana University-Purdue University. Liu is with Indiana University. Bell, J. F., Wilson, J. S., & Liu, G. C. (2008). Neighborhood greenness and 2-year changes in Body Mass Index of children and youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35(6), 547-553. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.ajpm-online.net/
Community design can promote and support children’s physical activity
This article is a policy statement by the American Academy of Pediatrics’ Committee on Environmental Health regarding the influence that community design has on children’s opportunities to be physically active. The Committee highlights the role of neighborhood design in promoting recreational and incidental or “utilitarian” physical activity, such as the availability of parks and recreational facilities, as well as children’s ability to walk to school. The Committee also highlights important factors influencing children’s physical activity, including traffic danger, the presence of sidewalks, and perception and fear of crime. Finally, the Committee provides a number of specific recommendations for pediatricians and government to promote children’s physical activity in the built environment and support more active lifestyles.Binns, H. J., Forman, J. A., Karr, C. J., Osterhoudt, K., Paulson, J. A., Roberts, J. R., et al. (2009). The built environment: designing communities to promote physical activity in children. Pediatrics, 123(6), 1591-1598. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.jpeds.com/
Children with a park playground near their home are more likely to be of a healthy weight
Physical activity is thought to play an important role in childhood obesity. While research results to date are somewhat mixed, parks can provide important opportunities for children to be physically active. In this study, Potwarka and colleagues examine whether children’s weight is related to park space and the availability of specific park facilities within 1km of children’s homes. Researchers collected information on 108 two- to seventeen-year-old children from four neighborhoods in a mid-sized city in Ontario, Canada. Parents reported their child’s height and weight, while researchers used a Geographic Information System to assess park space for each child and a database and trained observers to assess park facilities. In analyzing the study data, Potwarka and colleagues found that proximity to park space was not significantly related to children’s weight status. The researchers did find, however, that when examining park facilities, children with a park playground within 1 km of their homes were five times more likely to be of a healthy weight than children without a park playground near their homes. While this study may be limited due to its relatively small sample size, reliance on parental report, and focus on availability as opposed to actual use of park space, this study provides valuable insight into the potential importance of children’s proximity to specific park facilities as opposed to park space in general.Potwarka, L. R., Kaczynski, A. T., & Flack, A. L. (2008). Places to play: association of park space and facilities with healthy weight status among children. Journal of Community Health, 33(5), 344-350. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.springer.com/public+health/health+promotion+&+disease+prevention/journal/10900
Public open space features may influence children’s physical activity
Public open spaces may be important places for children to play and be physically active. Timperio and colleagues investigated relationships between the specific features of public open spaces and children’s physical activity by examining data collected as part of a neighborhood study in Melbourne, Australia. Participants in this study included 163 eight- to nine-year-old children and 334 thirteen- to fifteen-year-old children. Participants wore an accelerometer for one week to measure their physical activity and researchers used a Geographic Information System and trained observer to identify and analyze the closest public open space to each child’s home. In analyzing the data, Timperio and colleagues found that younger children spent significantly more time engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) on weekdays and weekends as compared to adolescents. While there were no gender differences among younger children, among adolescents researchers found that boys spent significantly more time engaged in MVPA on weekdays and weekends as compared to girls. With regard to public open space, Timperio and colleagues found that participants, on average, lived about 300 meters from their closest public open space. When examining relationships between features of children’s closest public open space and physical activity, researchers obtained somewhat mixed and inconsistent results. For example, researchers found that playgrounds were positively associated with younger boys’ weekend physical activity, the number of recreational facilities was inversely associated with younger girls’ physical activity after school and on the weekend, and the presence of trees and signage regarding dogs were positively associated with adolescent girls’ physical activity after school. While this study provides one of the few examinations of public open space features and children’s physical activity, additional research is needed to better understand children’s actual use of public open space and the quantity and quality of public open space features.Timperio, A., Giles-Corti, B., Crawford, D., Andrianopoulos, N., Ball, K., Salmon, J., et al. (2008). Features of public open spaces and physical activity among children: findings from the CLAN study. Preventive Medicine, 47(5), 514-518. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: www.elsevier.com/locate/amepre
Neighborhood recreation facilities positively influence children’s physical activity levels
Tucker and colleagues examined children’s physical activity levels in relation to several neighborhood environmental factors and parents’ perceptions of recreation opportunities. Over 800 eleven- to thirteen-year-old children in London, Ontario completed a questionnaire regarding their physical activity levels on the preceding day. In addition, parents completed a questionnaire evaluating their child’s home environment and researchers used a Geographic Information System to analyze each child’s neighborhood environment. In analyzing the data, Tucker and colleagues found that, on average, children engaged in about 160 minutes of physical activity a day. In addition, researchers found that neighborhood recreational opportunities significantly and positively influenced children’s physical activity levels. For example, Tucker and colleagues found that children with two or more recreation facilities in their neighborhood engaged in almost 17 more minutes of physical activity after school as compared to children with less than 2 recreation facilities and were almost 2 times as likely to be in the upper quartile for after school physical activity. Importantly, researchers controlled for a number of other factors in their analyses, including season and demographic factors. Tucker and colleagues also found that land use mix and percentage of park coverage did not significantly influence children’s physical activity levels. While this study is cross-sectional in nature, relied on self-report, and focused on quantity and not quality of recreation facilities, it provides valuable insight into how neighborhood recreation opportunities may influence children’s physical activity levels.Tucker, P., Irwin, J. D., Gilliland, J., He, M., Larsen, K., & Hess, P. (2009). Environmental influences on physical activity levels in youth. Health & Place, 15(1), 357-363. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/30519/description#description
Adolescents’ local environments influence their physical activity and food consumption
Eating well and being physically active are important to good health and well-being. In this article, Tucker and colleagues review the impact of home, school, and neighborhood environments on adolescents’ food behavior and physical activity, and investigate adolescents’ perceptions of these environments. As part of this study, researchers interviewed 60 twelve- to fourteen-year-old adolescents in focus groups in London, Ontario, Canada. Tucker and colleagues analyzed the content of information discussed in each focus group to understand influences on participants’ food consumption and physical activity. Researchers found that schools, nearby parks, and recreation facilities, as well as other structural opportunities around homes (e.g., yards and other kids) influenced adolescents’ physical activity and served as both a facilitator and barrier to their physical activity. For example, the majority of adolescents reported using parks often, however, some participants commented on the small size of local parks, amount of garbage, and the lack of opportunities for older children. Tucker and colleagues also found that adolescents identified the availability of fast-food restaurants, convenience stores, and other restaurants as impacting their food consumption and that a number of participants identified the lack of healthy foods in their schools and neighborhoods. While this study may be limited due to its small sample size and reliance on volunteers, it offers important insight into the local environment’s influence on adolescents’ physical activity and food consumption.Tucker, P., Irwin, J. D., Gilliland, J., & He, M. (2008). Adolescents' perspectives of home, school and neighborhood environmental influences on physical activity and dietary behaviors. Children, Youth and Environments, 18(2), 12-35. This article is available online at: http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/index_issues.htm.
Green School Gyms improve children’s health
BTCV is a charitable organization in the United Kingdom that created Green Gyms to improve people’s health and the environment. As part of Green Gyms, individuals participate in a range of conservation and gardening projects outdoors, such as planting trees and constructing footpaths. From 2007 to 2009, BTCV implemented Green Gyms in 9 primary schools. As part of these School Green Gyms, a weekly 1 to 1.5 hour session was provided for 10 weeks for groups of about 10 children at each school. During these sessions, children participated in environmental activities on their school grounds or nearby open spaces. BTCV commissioned a university to evaluate the School Green Gyms. As part of this evaluation, children completed a questionnaire before and after participation in the program. In analyzing the data, researchers found that children’s psychosocial health and overall health significantly improved after the Green Gyms program. In addition, they found that children’s weekend physical activity levels significantly increased after the program and that children felt very positive about the program. While the study data is based on self-reported information and it is difficult to separate the impact of the program activities from the outdoor context, this evaluation provides valuable information about the impact of an innovative program on children’s health.BTCV. (2009). Evaluation findings: health and social outcomes 2009. BTCV. This report is available online at: http://www2.btcv.org.uk/display/greengym_research
Children benefit from appropriate risk-taking during outdoor play
Play is critical to children’s healthy development. Little and Wyver examine outdoor play with a focus on early childhood education and urban Western culture. The authors review a number of social and environmental factors that have influenced children’s outdoor play experiences in recent years (e.g., traffic, lack of space, other time demands, and parental fears). Little and Wyver discuss the importance of children’s experience with risk to healthy development, including children’s ability to develop and refine their motor skills and enjoy and gain confidence in being physically active. The authors also review literature related to the impacts of not providing children with opportunities to engage in challenging and risk-related experiences, including children’s engagement in inappropriate risk-taking and underdevelopment of decision-making skills related to making sound risk judgments. Little and Wyver discuss the inability of many early childhood educators to provide challenging and stimulating outdoor experiences to children due to restrictive regulations and a cultural emphasis on eliminating or minimizing physical risk. The authors review the difference between “hazard” and “risk” and emphasize the importance of considering risk within the larger context of children’s development, as well as the need to focus on identifying and fostering a risk balance that is appropriate for each individual child. In concluding their article, Little and Wyver articulate a model they developed that illustrates possible pathways from specific factors (e.g., poor outdoor environments or fear of litigation) to minimization of risk-taking and developmental outcomes, and emphasize the need to examine early childhood education policy and practice.Little, H., & Wyver, S. (2008). Outdoor play - does avoiding the risks reduce the benefits? Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 33(2), 33-40. This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.earlychildhoodaustralia.org.au/australian_journal_of_early_childhood/about_ajec.html
Update: Children’s experience of nature
This section reviews research from 2008-2009 focused on the physical, mental, and social benefits that contact with nature provides to children. This section also highlights research on related factors that provide insight on this topic. Research is grouped into several main focal areas.
Many U.S. children are vitamin D deficient and this deficiency is associated with cardiovascular risk factors
Vitamin D is primarily produced in the skin after exposure to sunlight and is essential for calcium absorption and may be important to numerous other body processes. In this study, Kumar and colleagues investigated the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among U.S. children and whether vitamin D deficiency is associated with cardiovascular risk factors. The researchers analyzed data for nearly 10,000 children from the 2001-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), a nationally representative survey of the U.S. population where participants were interviewed and given physical examinations. In analyzing the data, Kumar and colleagues found that 9% of 1- to 21-year-old children were vitamin D deficient, representing 7.6 million U.S. children, and 61% were vitamin D insufficient, representing 50.8 million U.S. children. In examining factors associated with vitamin D deficiency, researchers found that children who were older, female, non-Hispanic black or Mexican American, obese, drank milk less than once a week, did not take vitamin D supplements, and were engaged in more than 4 hours of screen time a day, were more likely to be vitamin D deficient. In addition, Kumar and colleagues found that vitamin D deficiency was associated with a number of cardiovascular risk factors, including higher systolic blood pressure and higher lipoprotein cholesterol, when compared to children without vitamin D deficiency. While this study may be limited due to its cross-sectional design, Kumar and colleagues’ work using a large, nationally representative sample provides valuable information on an understudied topic.Kumar, J., Muntner, P., Kaskel, F. J., Hailpern, S. M., & Melamed, M. L. (2009). Prevalence and associations of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D deficiency in US children: NHANES 2001-2004. Pediatrics(August 3). This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: http://www.jpeds.com/
Children’s activities outside of school are similar across nations
Singer and colleagues surveyed 2400 mothers of 1- to 12-year-old children in sixteen nations about their attitudes and beliefs regarding their children’s play and well-being, as well their children’s activities outside of school. Participating mothers were from a diversity of socioeconomic backgrounds, urban to rural areas, and developed to developing countries. Despite this diversity, Singer and colleagues found many similarities in mothers’ responses. In their article, the researchers present many findings. A few of their key overall findings include: 1) the most common activity that children were reported to engage in outside of school was watching television, with 72% of mothers reporting that their child participated in this activity; 2) 58% of mothers reported that their child played outdoors; 3) 54% of mothers reported that playing outside was the activity their children enjoyed most; 4) 73% of mothers reported that their child would rather play outside than inside; 5) 47% of mothers were concerned that their children do not spend enough time playing outside; and 6) 72% of mothers agreed that children are growing up too quickly today. The researchers also analyzed survey data in terms of country development status, child gender, child age, and family characteristics, among other factors. For example, Singer and colleagues found that significantly more boys than girls played outside and participated in organized sports, and children with more siblings were reported to play outside more than children with fewer siblings. In addition, researchers found that mothers from rural areas were significantly more likely to report that their children participated in rough and tumble play or explored nature as compared to mothers from city and suburban areas. While this survey may be limited due to its reliance on proxy and self-report, it provides an important contribution to the literature because of its relatively large sample size and unique focus on mothers from a diversity of nations.Singer, D. G., Singer, J. L., D'Agostino, H., & DeLong, R. (2009). Children's pastimes and play in sixteen nations. American Journal of Play (Winter). This study may be available in a library near you or can be purchased online through the publisher at: www.americanjournalofplay.org/
Youth participation in outdoor activities declined in 2007
The Outdoor Foundation in cooperation with partner organizations commissioned a survey in 2008 to examine American’s participation in outdoor activities in 2007. As part of this survey, researchers conducted over 40,000 online interviews with individuals and households from around the nation. If a person took part in one or more of 35 identified outdoor activities (e.g., running, biking, fishing, and hiking) at least once during 2007, he or she was considered to have participated in outdoor recreation. Researchers weighted gathered data to ensure that it reflected the U.S. population as a whole. In their report, the Outdoor Foundation discusses many findings. Some of the key findings with regard to youth include: 1) youth participated in outdoor recreation more than any other age group and participated with greater frequency, however, there is much room for improvement as 42% of youth participated in outdoor activities less than 30 times a year; 2) when compared to participation in 2006, in 2007 there was over an 11% drop in outdoor activity participation among 6- to 17-year-old children (from 66% to 55%); 3) participation among 6- to 12-year-old girls and boys changed from 2006 to 2007 with boys dropping from 79% to 72% in their participation, while girls dropped from 77% to 61% in participation, leading to a larger gap between boys and girls in their outdoor recreation participation; 4) for 6- to 17-year-old children, the primary motivation reported for starting participation in outdoor activities was parents, friends, family, and relatives; 5) participation in outdoor activities declined with age; and 6) “fun” was the most common motivation youth provided for participating in outdoor activities, while “lack of interest” was the primary reason for not participating in outdoor activities. While this survey provides important information on American’s participation in outdoor activities and is based on a large, representative sample, the survey method used did change from 2007 to 2008 and thus could influence comparisons between 2006 and 2007 data. Additional data will improve our understanding of any observed trends in outdoor activity participation.The Outdoor Foundation. (2008). Outdoor recreation participation report 2008. The Outdoor Foundation. This report is available online at: http://www.outdoorfoundation.org/research.participation.2008.html
Outdoor play behavior has changed between today’s generation of children and their parent’s generation
While it is often suggested that children today have less contact with nature than in previous generations, little quantitative information is available. In 2009, Natural England commissioned England Marketing to conduct an online survey of adults and children in England to better understand nature contact between today’s generation of children and their parent’s generation. A total of 1150 adults and 502 seven- to eleven-year-old children participated in the online survey. In their report, England Marketing discusses a number of findings. A few of their key findings include: 1) 62% of children reported playing at home or a friend’s home more than any other place, whereas adults reported playing outdoors in local streets the most when they were children; 2) less than 10% of children today reported playing in natural places, whereas 40% of adults reported playing in such places when they were young; and 3) 41% of children reported that playing indoors is their favorite place to play, whereas only 16% of adults reported that playing indoors was their favorite place to play as children. In addition, with regard to “freedoms” to play, England Marketing found that 29% of adults reported that they do not allow their children to play unsupervised outdoors, 81% of children reported wanting more freedom to play outside, and 85% of adults reported that they would like their children to be able to play in natural spaces without supervision. While this survey relied on self-reported information and it is challenging to compare children’s current activities with adults’ memories of their childhood activities, this survey provides valuable information on a topic that has received limited attention.England Marketing. (2009). Childhood and nature: a survey on changing relationships with nature access across generations.
Children’s active free play in their neighborhoods is complex
Veitch and colleagues investigated where children engage in active free play in their neighborhoods and factors that influence their active free play. Over 200 eight- to twelve-year-old children from schools located in a range of socioeconomic areas in Melbourne, Australia completed a mapping activity and survey about their active free play behaviors, such as places where they ride or walk in their neighborhood without an adult. In this article, Veitch and colleagues discuss numerous findings, some of which are reported below. For example, researchers found that, overall, children reported being most active in their yard at home, followed by the park/playground and a friend’s/relative’s yard. With regard to distance from children’s homes to the closest and most often visited park, Veitch and colleagues found that, on average, children traveled 590 meters to reach their closest park and 1736 meters to reach the park they usually visited. In examining children’s independent mobility, researchers found that 36% of children reported being able to go to over three places without an adult and being able to walk or cycle more than 1000 meters from their home without an adult. Importantly, for each of the primary areas investigated, Veitch and colleagues found significant gender, age, and/or socioeconomic differences. For example, researchers found that girls reported being more active in their yard at home than boys, children from low socioeconomic areas reported having to travel more than 2 to 2.5 times further to get to their closest or usually visited park than children from high socioeconomic areas, and more children from low socioeconomic areas reported that they could travel more than 1000 meters from home without an adult as compared to children from mid and high socioeconomic areas. In their data analysis, Veitch and colleagues also found no significant associations between children’s use of parks/playgrounds and other open spaces and the various distance and independent mobility measures, which suggests that factors other than distance and independent mobility influence children’s use of these places. While this study may be limited due to its reliance on self-report and the fact that children in low socioeconomic areas were located in the outer suburbs, it provides an important contribution to our understanding of children’s use of their local neighborhood for active free play.Veitch, J., Salmon, J., & Ball, K. (2008). Children's active free play in local neighborhoods: a behavioral mapping study. Health Education Research, 23(5), 870-879
Being able to bike/walk to community recreation sites is an important determinant of how frequently they are used
Grow and colleagues investigated children and adolescents’ active use of 12 different types of community recreation sites; the relationships between proximity, walking/biking, and use of recreation sites; and relationships between neighborhood characteristics and whether children bike/walk to recreation sites. Researchers surveyed 89 parents of five- to ten-year-old children and 124 eleven- to eighteen-year-old adolescents, along with their parents, from three U.S. cities. In analyzing the data, Grow and colleagues found that the mean number of recreation sites children were reported to use at least every other week was 4.9, while adolescents reported using a mean of 3.6 sites at least every other week. Parents reported that children most commonly used swimming pools, small public parks, and playgrounds, while adolescents reported most commonly using play fields/courts, indoor recreation facilities, and swimming pools. In examining whether proximity to sites was related to their frequency of use, Grow and colleagues found that living within a 10-minute walk of large public parks and public open space increased the likelihood that children and adolescents used these sites. In addition, while specific results varied by age, Grow and colleagues found that walking/biking to a recreation site was significantly related to the use of a number of sites, and in most cases was more important than the proximity of the site. Finally, in examining the relationship between neighborhood factors and active transport to recreation sites, researchers found that perceived traffic safety, pedestrian infrastructure, and crime threat were the most important determinants in whether adolescents biked/walked to a site. While this study may be limited due to its cross-sectional design and reliance on proxy and self-report, it highlights the importance of creating communities and policies that support children and adolescent’s ability to bike/walk to recreation sites.Grow, H. M., Saelens, B. E., Kerr, J., Durant, N. H., Norman, G. J., & Sallis, J. F. (2008). Where are youth active? roles of proximity, active transport, and built environment. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40(12), 2071-2079
Certain neighborhood features influence parents’ perceptions of safety and children’s outdoor play
Handy and colleagues investigated relationships between the built and social environments of neighborhoods and children’s outdoor play using both a cross-sectional and quasi-longitudinal approach. Data for this study came from surveys completed by a random sample of nearly 600 households with children under the age of 16 who had either recently moved or not recently moved. Participants lived in one of eight neighborhoods in Northern California. Importantly, Handy and colleagues examined the effect of neighborhood characteristics on children’s outdoor play while controlling for neighborhood preferences. In analyzing the data, researchers found that cul-de-sacs for 6- to 12-year-old children, larger front yards, lower crime, and more interaction among neighbors were characteristics that significantly and positively impacted children’s outdoor play after controlling for socio-demographic characteristics and neighborhood preferences. Handy and colleagues also found that the built environment variables identified as significant (cul-de-sacs and larger front yards) were related to parents’ perceptions of safety. While this study may be limited due to its measure of outdoor play and reliance on parental report, it provides an important contribution to the literature and strengthens support for a causal relationship between the neighborhood environment and children’s outdoor play.Handy, S., Cao, X., & Mokhtarian, P. (2008). Neighborhood design and children's outdoor play: evidence from Northern California. Children, Youth and Environments, 18(2), 160-179
Children’s independent mobility influences their outdoor activity
Wen and colleagues examined the amount of time children play outside after school and the relationship between outdoor play and children’s independent mobility. As part of this study, nearly 1400 ten- to twelve-year-old children from schools in Sydney, Australia completed a five-day diary about their time spent playing outdoors and engaged in screen time (watching television/video or playing computer games). In addition, children answered a question about their independent mobility and parents provided family and demographic information. In analyzing the survey data, Wen and colleagues found that 37% of children reported spending less than 30 minutes a day playing outdoors after school, 43% reported spending more than 2 hours a day engaged in screen time, and 48% reported being allowed to mostly walk on their own where they live. With regard to these measures, researchers found some gender differences. For example, significantly more boys than girls spent 2 or more hours a day playing outdoors and engaged in screen time. In addition, boys were significantly more likely to have greater independent mobility as compared to girls. In examining the relationship between outdoor play and children’s independent mobility, Wen and colleagues found a significant association between the two factors after adjusting for a number of other factors. Specifically, researchers found that children who reported being allowed to walk on their own sometimes or mostly were 1.74 and 2.56 times more likely to spend more than 30 minutes a day outdoors after school as compared to children who were never allowed to walk on their own near home. The researchers also found that children of parents who reported their neighborhood as being safe, reported being employed, and reported having an English-speaking home were more likely to have children that reported spending more time outdoors. While this study is cross-sectional in nature and relies on self-reported data, it provides important information from a relatively large sample concerning the role of independent mobility in children’s time spent outdoors.Wen, L. M., Kite, J., Merom, D., & Rissel, C. (2009). Time spent playing outdoors after school and its relationship with independent mobility: a cross-sectional survey of children aged 10-12 years in Sydney, Australia. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 6, 8
Children’s independent mobility is significantly related to their weekday physical activity levels
Children’s ability to use their neighborhood unaccompanied by an adult is referred to as their “independent mobility.” Page and colleagues examined whether children’s independent mobility is related to their physical activity. To investigate this relationship, researchers had over 1300 ten- to eleven-year-old children from 23 primary schools in the United Kingdom complete a questionnaire about their neighborhood activities and wear an accelerometer for one week to measure their physical activity. In analyzing the study data, Page and colleagues identified two types of independent mobility: 1) local independent mobility, which included places close to children’s homes and 2) area independent mobility, which included places further from children’s homes. With regard to gender, independent mobility, and physical activity, researchers found that boys had significantly greater levels of local and area independent mobility and weekday and weekend physical activity compared to girls, whereas girls had significantly higher levels of body mass index (BMI) and pubertal status than boys. In terms of types of independent mobility, Page and colleagues found that both girls and boys had higher levels of local independent mobility as compared to area independent mobility. When examining the relationship between independent mobility and physical activity, researchers found that local and area independent mobility were significantly and positively related to physical activity levels for both boys and girls on weekdays—that is children with higher scores for local and area independent mobility tended to be more physically active on the weekdays. On the weekends, however, local independent mobility was the only significant predictor of physical activity levels in girls. While unclear, researchers speculate that on the weekends children may spend more time under parental supervision. Importantly, researchers controlled for a number of other variables in their analyses, including BMI, minutes of daylight, and socioeconomic status. While this study may be limited by its reliance on self-report of independent mobility and its cross-sectional design, it provides important insight into the relationship between independent mobility and physical activity in 10- to 11-year-old children.Page, A. S., Cooper, A. R., Griew, P., Davis, L., & Hillsdon, M. (2009). Independent mobility in relation to weekday and weekend physical activity in children aged 10-11 years: The PEACH Project. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 6, 9
As part of our ongoing efforts to build the movement, the Children & Nature Network has published two new resources for leaders, organizers, and participants at the local, national, and international levels:
