The United States created the National Park Service in 1916 “to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and wildlife therein and … leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.” Since then, many countries have also adopted “America’s best idea” — establishing national parks and forests for cultural, economic and environmental reasons.

The studies in this section survey children and nature research conducted in national parks and forests. Using questionnaires and interviews, this research links youths’ nature experiences in these public lands to their physical and mental health, social well-being, connectedness to nature and environmental stewardship. Several findings can steer practitioners toward the types of activities, facilities, programs and natural environments that most impacted youths’ national park and forest experiences.

Wuyishan National Park’s natural landscapes, activities and facilities enhance visitors’ health and relationships

This study investigated the health benefits for visitors to Wuyishan National Park, a nature reserve and cultural heritage site in China. Visitors attributed physical health recovery, mental health recovery and enhanced social relationships to their park experiences. These findings support the health value of national parks and highlight important natural elements, activities and facilities that support positive and healthy visitor experiences, particularly for children, teens and young adults.
Li et al., 2021. The contribution of national parks to human health and well-being: Visitors’ perceived benefits of Wuyishan National Park.
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Outdoor adventures in Finnish National Park fueled young adults’ well-being and nature engagement

This study examined how vocational students (age 17-30) benefitted from outdoor adventure programs in a Finnish national park. Questionnaire results pointed to participants’ enhanced moods, restoration, life satisfaction, social well-being, interest in nature and motivation to engage with nature. Findings support the use of outdoor adventures to increase emerging adults’ subjective well-being and nature engagements.
Puhakka, 2024. Effects of outdoor adventures on emerging adults’ well-being and connection with nature.
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Ecotourism in Australian national parks supported early childhood environmental education

National parks served as important sites of ecotourism and environmental education in this Australian study. Ecotourism professionals working with young children identified links between children’s early experiences in nature and their development of pro-environmental values and attitudes. In particular, ecotourism sites supported early childhood environmental education through play-based learning, storytelling, role-playing and adults actively helping children develop sound relationships with the natural world.
King, García-Rosell & Noakes, 2020. Promoting children-nature relations through play-based learning in ecotourism sites.
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Public lands monitoring programs developed teens’ scientific understanding and environmental stewardship

This U.S. study examined three youth-based citizen science programs set in national forests to compare how they integrated environmental education with science and advanced ecological knowledge and environmental stewardship. High school students effectively learned scientific inquiry and field work through citizen science. However, youths’ environmental stewardship developed more in public lands monitoring programs with (1) research projects directly applied to the field, (2) more field work time and (3) discussions of their field work’s implications.
Pitt, Schultz & Vaske, 2019. Engaging youth in public lands monitoring: opportunities for enhancing ecological literacy and environmental stewardship.
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Public parks represent most urban families’ primary access point to nature. Urban greenspaces support outdoor recreation, physical activity, stress relief, social relationships, and people’s connections to nature. However, all urban greenspaces are not created equal.

The research in this section unpacks why residents visit urban public parks, what benefits they gain from these visits, and what types of public space and open space most improve their quality of life. These studies have implications for practitioners by highlighting the natural and built environments and usage patterns that encourage more physical activity and outdoor recreation, healthy family and social relationships, a sense of place and stronger connections to nature.

Visitors most value the relatively wild aspects of large urban parks like Seattle’s Discovery Park

This case study examined human-nature interactions in Seattle’s Discovery Park to understand why people visited and valued it. Visitors’ most frequent and meaningful experiences relied upon “relatively wild” nature versus domesticated spaces. Biodiversity, wildlife, old growth trees, large open spaces, expansive vistas and experiences of solitude helped visitors manage the stressors of urban life and enjoy more physical activity, deeper social connections and positive psychological states.
Lev et al., 2020. Relatively wild urban parks can promote human resilience and flourishing: A case study of Discovery Park, Seattle, Washington.
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Public parks with relatively wild nature linked to less dominating, more relational ways of being

This study compared how children in Hong Kong (age 3-8) interacted with relatively wild nature and domestic nature to test the hypothesis that nature engagements in wilder environments are associated with less domination-oriented and more relationally-oriented worldviews. Children demonstrated more relational patterns in wilder park areas and more dominating behaviors in more domesticated parts of parks. Therefore, facilitating child-nature interactions in relatively wild landscapes could cultivate more reciprocal relationships with other humans, animals and the natural world.
Lam, Kahn & Weiss, 2023. Children in Hong Kong interacting with relatively wild nature (vs. domestic nature) engage in less dominating and more relational behaviors.
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Guangzhou adolescents report low frequency, short duration visits to urban greenspaces

This study documented adolescents’ visitation patterns of urban greenspaces in Guangzhou, China. Adolescents’ low frequency and short duration visits indicated limited connections to nature. However, data suggest that decision-makers could make public lands more responsive to adolescents by leveraging their preferences for urban parks, riverside greenbelts and multi-functional greenspaces that support their outdoor recreational activities and family time.
Chen, Peng & Shan, 2025. Adolescent visit patterns of urban green spaces and socio-demographic variations in a large high-density city.
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Cities can use biophilic design to cultivate public spaces which support children’s health and well-being

This study examined peer-reviewed research and exemplar public spaces in Denmark and the U.K. to outline how cities can leverage more natural environments to support children’s health and well-being. Public spaces which integrated (1) direct and indirect nature experiences and (2) experiences of space and place fostered children’s connection to nature. Architects, landscape designers and city planners can draw upon these evidence-based biophilic design principles to create new green spaces and improve existing green spaces.
Russo & Andreucci, 2023. Raising healthy children: Promoting the multiple benefits of green open spaces through biophilic design.
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The COVID-19 pandemic also highlighted the importance of public parks and outdoor recreation. On one hand, people flocked to national parks and urban green spaces to support their physical and mental health while practicing social distancing. On the other hand, COVID closures and limited park infrastructures sometimes constrained children’s access to nature.

The research in this section examines how public parks around the world have struggled to balance access, public safety, visitor experience and environmental protection during the pandemic. Contrasting findings point to national, regional and cultural differences with respect to pandemic policies, the popularity of outdoor recreation and the provision, funding and maintenance of public parks.

Norwegian public parks sustain increased outdoor recreation months after COVID lockdown

This study used GPS tracking data to determine if residents of Oslo, Norway sustained the increased use of public parks that followed COVID-19 shutdowns. Months after the city eased pandemic restrictions, Oslo’s residents (including teens) maintained 89% higher levels of outdoor recreation, particularly in public green spaces. Sustained increases in outdoor recreation suggest the pandemic may have fundamentally changed people’s relationships with nature and with public space.
Venter et al., 2021. Back to nature: Norwegians sustain increased recreation use of urban green space months after the COVID-19 outbreak.
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Youths’ outdoor play declined the most in Canadian provinces with more stringent COVID-19 restrictions

This Canadian study compared how provinces’ contrasting COVID-19 policies both facilitated and restricted access to outdoor spaces. While some provinces maintained safe access to parks, provinces with the most COVID-19 cases restricted outdoor access. However, closing national and provincial parks led to steep declines in the time youth spent outdoors. Given the importance of outdoor play to child health and well-being, the authors call for pandemic policies which preserve public park access.
Lannoy et al., 2020. Regional differences in access to the outdoors and outdoor play of Canadian children and youth during the COVID-19 outbreak.
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Disparities in public park access posed health challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic

This study examined unequal access to public green spaces during COVID-19 lockdowns in England and Wales. Results showed millions of families could not access public parks and gardens within 5-10 minutes of home. Plus, limited per-capita park space in many cities made social distancing impossible during peak use times. These findings highlight the importance of adequate and accessible public green space in the interest of public health.
Shoari et al., 2020. Accessibility and allocation of public parks and gardens in England and Wales: A COVID-19 social distancing perspective.
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Socioeconomic factors influenced green space visits before and during the COVID pandemic

This Japanese study used an online survey to identify how socioeconomic attributes and residential contexts impacted people’s access to and use of public green spaces during the COVID-19 pandemic. Respondents with higher household incomes and households with children tended to visit green areas more than other respondents. Low-income residents tended to have less access to green space, suggesting the need for policies that enhance green space accessibility in lower socioeconomic areas.
Uchiyama & Kohsaka, 2020. Access and use of green areas during the COVID-19 pandemic: Green infrastructure management in the “new normal.”
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Several of the studies above point to people’s unequal access to public parks, gardens and other types of green space. The following studies specifically investigated disparities in access to public lands. In a few cases, this research confirms predictable disparities based on race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. However, most findings suggest more complex patterns of equal and unequal access to public lands by accounting for the size and quality of public parks, trails and open spaces available to people in specific cities and regions.

Regional park equity analysis revealed disparities in park aesthetics and amenities

This study examined potential inequalities in park availability and quality in a southern U.S. city. On average, high poverty neighborhoods had more public parks. However, these parks had fewer aesthetically pleasing features — such as woods, art and landscaping — and fewer amenities, such as restrooms, drinking fountains, lights and picnic tables. These findings offer a nuanced picture of park access in a specific urban region.
Hallum et al., 2024. Unearthing inequities in the relationship between multiple sociodemographic factors and diverse elements of park availability and quality in a major southern metropolitan region.
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Women and low-income groups identify barriers to public park access in Hyderabad, India

This study used interviews to understand residents’ perceptions of, and access to, four public greenspaces in Hyderabad, India. Respondents valued public parks for exercise, outdoor recreation, solitude, social life and observing nature, and identified both physical and mental health benefits of urban greenspaces. However, women cited lack of time and safety concerns as barriers, and low-income groups cited park entry fees and foraging restrictions as barriers to visiting the parks.
Basu & Nagendra, 2021. Perceptions of park visitors on access to urban parks and benefits of green spaces.
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Transit agencies can address some environmental injustices related to park access

This study examined access to large public parks in western U.S. cities. Demographic, geographic and public transit patterns revealed significant variations in park access by age, income and race/ethnicity. Some evidence suggested less walking access and public transit access in disadvantaged neighborhoods; therefore, improving public transit could reduce environmental injustice by allowing more people to experience the health benefits of large parks.
Park et al., 2021. Transit to parks: An environmental justice study of transit access to large parks in the U.S. West.
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Free admission to public lands increased outdoor recreation for high-income families more than low-income families

This U.S. study evaluated the Every Kid in a Park program, which provided 4th graders and their families free admission to federal public lands (now under the name Every Kid Outdoors). The frequency of eligible children and families hiking increased during this program. However, significant gains in outdoor recreation occurred in higher income families, not low-income families. These findings suggest it takes more than free admission to increase outdoor recreation among low-income families and to equalize access to public lands.
Wikle & Hodge, 2023. Free public lands admission for children and spillovers in family recreation.
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