Bibliography: Nature Engagement during the Early Childhood Years

Positive engagement with nature can promote young children’s mental health and possibly reduce early childhood mental health inequities. Positive mental health outcomes associated with young children’s engagement with nature include increases in self-confidence and resilience and decreases in depressive affect. Quality of greenspace for children may be a stronger predictor of positive mental health outcomes than quantity. Overall, the research about the mental health benefits of nature engagement is “promising.”

Nature engagement may provide therapeutic and protective benefits for children with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). 

This review of the literature focused on applications of nature as a protective or therapeutic intervention for children who had experienced adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and/or trauma. While some of the studies included children in the early childhood age range, numerous did not. Findings indicate that (1) children with adversity tend to experience poor physiological and often psychopathological outcomes; (2) children and adults at-risk or diagnosed with physical, emotional, and/or cognitive difficulties can benefit from therapeutic nature-based interventions; and (3) there appear to be no specific interventions for children with ACEs. These findings indicate that nature engagement may serve as a protective factor before the harmful impacts of ACEs on development occur, but that more research is needed to confirm this hypothesis

Touloumakos, A. K., Barrable, A., (2020). Adverse childhood experiences: The protective and therapeutic potential of nature. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1-9.

An intervention program focusing on increasing connectedness to nature significantly reduced overall perceived stress among preschool children, especially as expressed through anger frequency.

This experimental study compared gut microbiota, fecal serotonin, and perceived stress in two groups of preschool children: one group participating in a ten-week nature-focused intervention program; the other group not participating in the program. Pre- post-assessment results showed that the intervention group scored lower in overall perceived stress levels and made significant gains in prosocial behavior post-intervention. Behavior changes were particularly noted in the reduced frequency of anger. After the program, children in the intervention group also showed changes in their gut microbiota; children in the control group did not. These findings indicate that the intervention program modulated the microbiome in the intervention group. This research suggests that exposure to bacteria in natural environments could be beneficial to behavioral outcomes for young children. 

Sobko, T., Liang, S., Cheng, W. H. G., Tun, H. M., (2020). Impact of outdoor nature‐related activities on gut microbiota, fecal serotonin, and perceived stress in preschool children: The Play&Grow randomized controlled trial. Scientific Reports, 10.

Young children choose nature to relax.

Interviews with 46 children (age 3-5) from six childcare programs in Brisbane, Australia showed that place and play are important to relaxation and that these factors are interconnected. The children identified common places for experiencing relaxation, particularly in nature and at home. Children described their relaxation experiences as being sensory-rich and centered on feelings of coziness and comfort. This research highlights the importance of affording children agency in choosing experiences that are relaxing to them while in childcare. Childcare professionals are encouraged to engage children in discussions about their relaxation preferences and to allow children to choose the environmental and social settings that support their relaxation needs.

Cooke, E., Thorpe, K., Clarke, A., Houen, S., Oakes, C., Staton, S., (2020). “Lie in the grass, the soft grass”: Relaxation accounts of young children attending childcare. Children and Youth Services Review, 109

Nature engagement can promote multiple aspects of young children’s social-emotional learning (SEL), including social interaction skills, independence, impulse control, management of one’s emotions and problem-solving skills. Nature engagement can be enhanced by increasing outdoor playtime at school and encouraging a variety of nature-based activities. This category overlaps to some degree with the category of “enhanced play” below as this research demonstrates that children engage in more cooperative, collaborative, imaginative play together in nature settings. Overall, the research in the area of social-emotional functioning is relatively “established.”.

Contact with nature during childcare might promote young children’s cognitive functioning, affective state, and social interaction.

Thirty-nine children (age 18 months to 36 months) from four different childcare centers in Italy participated in this experimental study investigating the impact of contact with nature on young children’s behavior. The study involved a comparison of behavior on “green days” (GDs) and “non-green days” (NGDs). A behavior checklist focusing on cognitive functioning, affective state, and social interaction was used for assessing individual children’s behaviors. Performance on GDs showed (a) higher levels of orientation toward the activity in task performance, (b) more frequent positive individual behaviors, and (c) more frequent positive relational behaviors than on NGDs. This research adds support to the idea that contact with nature can serve as a buffer to stressors experienced by young children at childcare.

Carrus, G., Passiatore, Y., Pirchio, S., Scopelliti, M., (2015). Contact with nature in educational settings might help cognitive functioning and promote positive social behaviour. Psyecology, 6(2), 191-212.

The blending of forest school with formal education can promote skills not typically addressed in a classroom-only setting.

Fifteen children (age 4-5) from a Reception Year class and 18 children (age 8-9) from a Year 4 class in the UK participated in interviews after completing a Forest School (FS) experience. This experience involved six weekly, half-day sessions conducted in a local woodland a short drive away from the school. Children from both groups said they felt more playful at FS and recognized playing as an opportunity to learn skills typically not addressed in the classroom, such as social interaction skills, problem solving, independence, negotiation, and creativity.

Coates, J.K., Pimlott-Wilson, H., (2019). Learning while playing: Children’s Forest School experiences in the UK. British Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 21-40.

Teacher encouragement and nature-based activities help young children develop prosocial behaviors.

Researchers analyzed 74 running record observations of young children’s behaviors and social interactions over a two-year period as they participated in a nature-preschool program. Seven pro-social themes emerged from the data: (1) respecting nature; (2) respecting people; (3) sharing, helping, and taking turns; (4) building friendships and expressing unity; (5) cooperating and working together as a team; (6) demonstrating empathy; and (7) expressing gratitude. There were frequent demonstrations of these behaviors by the children, including children with disabilities. The data also revealed numerous ways in which the teachers helped children develop pro-social behaviors, such as providing opportunities for sharing and helping, encouraging children to take the perspective of other people and creatures, and encouraging reflections on behavior.

Acar, I. H., Torquati, J. C., (2015). The power of nature: Developing prosocial behavior toward nature and peers through nature-based activities. Young Children, 70(5), 62-71.

Play with natural materials promotes diverse and enhanced levels of play, which contribute to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children. Additionally, the affordances of natural environments tend to encourage risky play which can promote increased confidence and competence in young children. The existing research supporting nature’s promotion of certain types of play is “established” in some areas – such as for socio-dramatic play, but still new and “emerging” in other areas – such as for risky play.

Preschoolers’ sociodramatic play is more complex in a naturalized versus traditional outdoor playspace.

This quasi-experimental study compared preschoolers’ sociodramatic play episodes in a traditional and a naturalized outdoor playspace to determine whether the sociodramatic play processes differed in the two spaces. Over 50 children — all attending the same Australian preschool with access to both a traditional and a naturalized outdoor playspace – participated in this study. Observations, totaling 276 minutes in each yard, were conducted over a six-week period. Findings indicated that children spent more time in sociodramatic play in the naturalized yard than in the traditional playspace. Additionally, the play episodes in the naturalized yard persisted longer, used more of the wider available space, and involved more fantasy role play than in the traditional playspace. 

Morrissey, A-M., Scott, C., Rahimi, M., (2017). A comparison of sociodramatic play processes of preschoolers in a naturalized and a traditional outdoor space. International Journal of Play, 6(2), 177-197.

Including natural elements rich in biodiversity is a safe and health-promoting way to provide rich opportunities for young children’s creative play and learning.

Six childcare centers and 13 groups of children (age 3-5) in Finland participated in a mixed-methods investigation focusing on how the greening of daycare yards with biodiverse materials affords well-being, play and environmental relationships. The greening of the daycare yards consisted of adding a forest floor with high biodiversity, sod, peat blocks, and planters for growing vegetables and flowers. Data collected from teachers and parents approximately one month after the greening process showed that children were excited about the green yards and spent a lot of time in contact with the nature-related materials added to the yard. The natural elements added to the yard (forest floor vegetation, sticks, pinecones, etc.) inspired children to be physically active, explore, and manipulate loose parts in imaginative ways.

Puhakka, R., Rantala, O., Roslund, M.I., Rajaniemi, J., Laitinen, O.H., Sinkkonen, A., ADELE Research Group, (2019). Greening of daycare yards with biodiverse materials affords well-being, play and environmental relationships. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(16)

More naturalized playspaces, while promoting different aspects of child development and offering more affordances for risky play, may not always increase risky play behaviors. 

Two childcare centers in Canada participated in this study which involved assessments of children and their outdoor playspace before and after changes were made to each center’s outdoor environment. Behavioral observations and teacher perspectives indicate that, after the renovations, there were reductions in stress, boredom, injury, anti-social behavior, and level of physical activity. There were increases in problem-solving, socialization, creativity, focus, and self-regulation. While the more naturalized environments offered more affordances for risky play, there were no significant differences in risky play behaviors, due perhaps to teachers’ attitudes and practices relating to play.

Brussoni, M., Ishikawa, T., Brunelle, S., Herrington, S., (2017). Landscapes for play: Effects of an intervention to promote nature-based risky play in early childhood centres. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 54, 139-150.

Specific features of outdoor spaces support greater frequency and complexity of preschoolers’ sociodramatic play

This study used both quantitative and qualitative research methods to compare the frequency and complexity of the sociodramatic play of two groups of preschool children in two different outdoor spaces – one with a conventional playground and a naturalized area; the other with some natural surfaces and vegetation, but with more manufactured features. Findings showed that sociodramatic play was substantially more frequent and more complex in the outdoor space that included the naturalized area. There was also greater movement between and within areas in this outdoor setting. Features supporting more frequent and complex sociodramatic play include a balanced combination of manufactured resources and significant vegetation and natural loose parts; opportunities for seclusion and lack of overcrowding; linking pathways; and open-ended design.

Robertson, N., Morrissey, A., Moore, D., (2019). From boats to bushes: environmental elements supportive of children’s sociodramatic play outdoors. Children’s Geographies

Children’s involvement in play increases when they can easily access a variety of natural and other types of open-ended materials.

Researchers used the Leuven Involvement Scale in a study investigating the association between children’s involvement in free play and the use of play materials in outdoor environments at preschools. The research also involved coding the type of materials used for play and calculating the percentage of time the material was used during each observed play episode. Generally, children’s play with loose parts and movable materials – with the exception of wheeled toys – tended to be associated with higher play involvement scores. Using two or more different types of play materials at once also increased the children’s involvement in free play.

Storli, R., Sandseter, E.B.H., Sando, O.J., (2020). Children’s involvement in free play and the use of play materials in the outdoor early childhood education and care environment. Children, Youth and Environments, 30(1), 66-82.

A mix of natural environments and traditional play equipment promotes risky play in 1- to 3-year-old children.

This study used both quantitative and qualitative data to examine provision for 1- to 3-year-olds’ risky play in three contrasting early childhood programs in Norway. The data were collected during three full days of observations in each of the three centers, using pre-determined criteria for objective risk (such as height, speed, and unstable surfaces) and subjective risk (children’s expressions of fear, hesitancy or exhilaration). While the data showed that the total number of risky play instances in each center was roughly equivalent, children in centers with a mix of natural environments and traditional play equipment showed more varied risky play. 

Kleppe, R., (2018). Affordances of 1- to 3-year-olds’ risky play in Early Childhood Education and Care. Journal of Early Childhood Research.

Nature engagement promotes various dimensions of young children’s cognitive development, including attention, imagination, curiosity, problem solving, and creativity. Unstructured play and exploration in natural environments provide rich opportunities for young children to develop the knowledge, skills, and dispositions related to healthy cognitive functioning.  The existing research supporting nature’s promotion of cognitive development is “established” in some areas – such as for imagination, creative and and imaginary play – and “promising” in other areas – such as for attention and executive function development in young children.   

Children engaged in nature play showed consistent positive impacts in the cognitive functioning areas of imagination, creativity, and dramatic play.

This review – using only quantitative primary research studies – aimed to identify the empirical evidence of nature play on child health and development. The age range of the included studies was from 2-9 years. Most of the studies, however, focused on children aged 2-5.  Positive child development outcome areas reported in this review include physical activity, health-related fitness, motor skill, cognitive learning, and social and emotional development. The evidence for positive outcomes was strongest in the areas of physical activity and cognitive development. Results relating to cognitive development indicate that nature play had consistent positive impacts in the related domains of imagination, creativity and dramatic play. 

Dankiw et al. 2020. The impacts of unstructured nature play on health in early childhood development: A systematic review. PloS ONE, 15(2).

Higher frequency of green schoolyard use and more time outdoors are linked to self-regulation gains in kindergarten students

Researchers investigated changes in kindergarten children’s self-regulation before and after using a green schoolyard over a period of one semester. Two groups of children were involved: a low-frequency group using the greenspace just once a week; a high-frequency group using the greenspace every day. Overall results showed that students who spent more time in greenspaces weekly tended to have higher self-regulation scores at the end of the semester. This relationship was more consistent for girls than for boys. This research found that more time spent outdoors was related to higher self-regulation – “the higher the frequency of visits, and the more minutes weekly, the greater the gains”. These findings suggest that time in greenspaces supports children’s self-regulation development.

Faber Taylor, A., Butts-Wilmsmeyer, C., (2020). Self-regulation gains in kindergarten related to frequency of green schoolyard use. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 70

Outdoor time at preschool promotes young children’s attention skills and may protect against inattention-hyperactivity symptoms.

A total of 562 children from 28 childcare centers in Norway were followed longitudinally over a period of four years, with assessments conducted each year. The participating centers varied widely in how much time the children spent outdoors. Findings showed that children with high and low levels of outdoor hours during childcare did not differ on an attention assessment at age 3. However, from age 4 until after school entry (around age 7), children with high levels of outdoor time during childcare showed consistently higher levels of attention skills than the children with low levels of outdoor time. Additionally, children with high levels of outdoor time during childcare showed fewer inattention-hyperactivity symptoms at ages 4, 5, 6 and 7. 

Ulset, V., Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., Bekkhus, M., Borge, A.I.H., Time spent outdoors during preschool: Links with children’s cognitive and behavioral development, Journal of Environmental Psychology (2017)

Nature engagement can promote the exercise of executive function in preschoolers.

This study investigated the influence of nature playscape affordances on executive function in preschoolers. Analysis of videotaped vignettes involving 65 low-income children (age 3-5) provided evidence of well-designed nature playscapes promoting different aspects of executive function skills in preschool children, including inhibitory control, flexibility, and working memory.

Carr, V., Brown, R.D., Schlembach, S., Kochanowski, L., (2017). Nature by design: Playscape affordances support the use of executive function in preschoolers. Children, Youth and Environments, 27(2), 25-46.

Nature preschools can be effective in promoting executive function skills, a critical component of school readiness.

This quasi-experimental study conducted in the US found that children attending both nature preschools and high-quality non-nature preschools grew in executive function skills. Though there was no difference between these groups, students’ executive functioning development exceeded what would be expected in typically developing children. This research adds support to the growing literature on the benefits of nature preschools, including supporting school readiness to at least the same extent as traditional preschools. 

Zamzow, J., Ernst, J., (2020). Supporting school readiness naturally: Exploring executive function growth in nature preschools. The International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 7(2), 6-16.

Creative thinking scores for students at nature preschools increased over a one-schoolyear period; the same was not found in students at a non-nature preschool.

For this quasi-experimental study, researchers used the Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement (TCAM) instrument to collect data on creative thinking levels in two groups of preschool students: some attending a nature preschool; some attending a non-nature preschool. The TCAM measures three components of creative thinking: 1) fluency, or number of ideas generated; 2) originality, or uniqueness of ideas; and 3) imagination, or capacity to adopt a new role. The TCAM assessment was completed on all the participating children in the beginning and end of the schoolyear. Overall, the creative thinking scores of the nature preschoolers increased over the school year, whereas the scores of non-nature preschool participants did not significantly change.

Woiciehowski, M. & Ernst. J. (2018). Creative by Nature: Investigating the impact of nature preschools on young children’s creative thinking. The International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 6(1), 3 – 2

Also see Zamani 2017 in “Designing With and For Young Children” section.

Language and literacy development are major domains of early childhood development and critical components of school readiness. The research on nature-based activities in and outside of the preschool classroom in terms of promoting improved oral and written expression is “emerging.”

Garden activities promote multiple skills in language and literacy.

Twelve early childhood teachers participated in photo-elicitation interviews focusing on the value of and processes for supporting learning among young children in the garden at an early childhood center in the US serving infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. Findings indicated that garden-based activities helped children develop language and literacy skills, along with other school readiness areas.

Murakami, C.D., Su-Russell, C., Manfra, L., (2018). Analyzing teacher narratives in early childhood garden-based education. Journal of Environmental Education, 49(1), 18-29.

Nature-based play  in an early childhood classroom promoted young children’s language development. 

This qualitative study was conducted with four- and five-year-old children in a school in Brazil.  The teacher used a sequence of nature-related play-based activities to help children understand the scientific concept of a food web. This approach, as reported by the teacher, seemed to promote children’s oral and written expression, vocabulary expansion, and ecological literacy.

de Brito Miranda, A.C., Jófili, Z., dos Anjos Carneiro-Leão, A.M., (2017). Ecological literacy – Preparing children for the twenty-first century. Early Child Development and Care, 187(2), 192-205.

School readiness refers to the skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors necessary for children’s success in school as expressed across multiple domains. These domains include language and literacy development, cognition and general knowledge, approaches to learning (emotional, behavioral, and cognitive self-regulation), physical well-being and motor development, and social and emotional development. Nature-based learning – that is, learning through exposure to nature and nature-based activities – may be an effective way to build these skills and other capacities for success in school. Although research on the benefit of nature for development of these various domains might be promising or well-established, research on the complete pathway – from nature engagement to development of domains of function to school readiness – is just “emerging.”

Children in nature-based and traditional preschools are equally prepared for kindergarten.

A quasi-experimental and longitudinal research design was used to determine if children in a traditional preschool setting and a nature-based preschool setting in the US were equally prepared academically and social-emotionally for kindergarten. Both programs were located in the same school, thus drawing from families with similar backgrounds. Assessments completed before, during, and after the academic year showed that the two groups of children ended the year with approximately equal levels of kindergarten readiness in the areas of social-emotional functioning, academic skills, and pretend play. 

Cordiano, T.S., Lee, A., Wilt, J., Elszasz, A., Damour, L.K., Russ, S.W., (2019). Nature-based education and kindergarten readiness: Nature-based and traditional preschoolers are equally prepared for kindergarten. International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 6(3), 18-36.

Nature preschools can be effective in promoting school readiness through furthering peer play behaviors and learning behaviors.

Four nature preschools and two non-nature preschools in northern Minnesota participated in a quasi-experimental study investigating the effectiveness of nature preschools on two components of school readiness: peer play interactions and learning behaviors. Assessments of participating children’s peer play interactions and learning behaviors were conducted in October 2018 as pre-test measures and in May 2019 as post-test measures. Children attending the nature preschools showed significant growth from pre- to post-test in the play interaction dimension of peer play and a significant reduction of play disruption and play disconnection behaviors. They also showed significant growth in learning behaviors. The non-nature preschoolers showed significant growth in only one of the assessed areas – play disconnection in the home/neighborhood, reflecting withdrawn behavior and nonparticipation in peer play.

Burgess, E., Ernst, J., (2020). Beyond traditional school readiness: How nature preschools help prepare children for academic success. International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 7(2), 17-33.

Both “ecological identity” and “connectedness to nature” refer to how people view themselves in relation to the rest of the natural world. Cognition and emotion play a role in how one perceives this relationship. Manifestations of the relationship are evident in one’s values, actions, interests, and personality. Empathy and care for other living things, a sense of responsibility toward nature, enjoyment of and curiosity about the natural world, a sense of kinship and oneness with the rest of nature, and pro-environmental behaviors are indicators of a positive ecological identity and strong connectedness to nature. Evidence for the effectiveness of nature-focused initiatives in formal and non-formal education in developing empathic and caring relationships with nature is “emerging” at this young age, though “promising” given the evidence at older ages and the long history of research that shows children gravitating to nature spaces for play and showing enjoyment and curiosity there. These initiatives are consistent with UNESCO’s statement about the importance of the early childhood years in education for sustainability (EfS). 

Children attending a nature preschool had higher connectedness to nature than preschoolers attending a traditional preschool.

Data for this quasi-experimental study was based on 216 children (age 1-8) attending either a nature nursery or a traditional nursery in the UK. Children in the nature nursery spend most of their time outdoors in a natural setting. Results of a parent-completed survey indicated that children who attended nature nurseries scored higher on a nature connectedness index than children attending traditional nurseries. Findings also showed that both parental nature connection and total time spent in attendance at a nature nursery were predictors of preschool children’s connection to nature.

Barrable & Booth 2020. Nature connection in early childhood: A quantitative cross-sectional study. Sustainability, 12.

Preschool children are beginning to develop their own ideas about nature and their relationship with the natural world, regardless of their environment.

Thirty-six preschool children (27 attending preschool in an urban environment; 9 in a rural setting) participated in one-on-one structured interviews focusing on their attitudes toward and experiences being in nature. Two data-collection instruments were used during the interview: one measuring biophilia; the other measuring attitudes towards nature. Quantitative data analysis showed no significant differences in biophilia between the two groups of children. Additional qualitative analysis identified three common themes: 1) young children define nature by identifying specific elements; 2) young children are aware that their actions have consequences for the condition of the natural environment; and 3) children understand that the expectations guiding behavior in the natural environment apply to everyone.

Yanez, R.E., Fees, B.S., Torquati, J., (2017). Preschool children’s biophilia and attitudes toward nature: The effect of personal experiences. The International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 5(1), 57-67.

Place-based learning can help young children develop a sustainability perspective and positive eco- identity.

This longitudinal study was conducted over a period of a year, involved multiple early childhood settings in different geographical environments, and used ethnographic methods of observations, field notes, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to collect information about the context of place-based learning in early childhood. Most of the programs participating in this study make frequent and regular visits to a natural area over a long period of time. Children in the majority of the settings showed a growing awareness and love for the place they visited. They also showed a sense of caring for themselves and others, and demonstrated the ability to reflect on environmental issues and offer solutions. These outcomes reflect a sustainability perspective and a positive ecological identity.

Boyd, D., (2019). Utilising place-based learning through local contexts to develop agents of change in Early Childhood Education for Sustainability. Education 3-13, 47(8), 983-997.

Young children often express connection to nature differently than adults and older children.

This study examined the meaning, assessment, and development of connection to nature (C2N) in two- to five-year-old children. Information gleaned from a Connection to Nature Workshop, a literature search focusing on C2N assessment tools, and input from an Expert Advisory Panel on Early Childhood Nature Connection indicate that both quantity and quality of time in nature play important roles in promoting young children’s C2N. Findings also highlight unique ways in which preschool children experience and express C2N and reinforce the understanding that young children can make important contributions to a sustainable future.

Beery, T., Chawla, L., Leven, P., (2020). Being and becoming in nature: Defining and measuring connection to nature in young children. International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 7(3), 3-22.

Healthy family functioning is generally associated with positive child outcomes. There are multiple dimensions to healthy family functioning, including values and norms, positive communication, family members’ interest in and support for each other, and positive ways of expressing emotions. Factors working against healthy family functioning include poverty, substance abuse, and conflict between family members. Family time in nature can promote emotional bonding and positive interactions. At times, family engagement with nature can also decrease or buffer the stress associated with negative conditions surrounding the family. The strength of the evidence in this domain is “promising.”

Connecting families with nature decreases stress in low-income families.

One of the goals of this experimental study was to determine if park prescriptions will improve stress and other behavioral and health outcomes for parents at a low-income clinic in Oakland, California. All participating parents were counseled on the health benefits of time in nature and were given a map of local parks, a journal for tracking their park visits, and a pedometer. Assessments completed three times during the course of the study showed increased visits to parks and a significant decrease in stress. More park visits per week were associated with significant and incremental decreases in stress. These results applied to parents in two randomly-assigned groups – one with planned group outings; one without planned outings.

Razani et al. 2018. Effect of park prescriptions with and without group visits to parks on stress reduction in low-income parents: SHINE randomized trial. PLOS ONE.

Natural environments foster improved parent-child communication.

Eighteen parent-child pairs participated in an experimental study focusing on their verbal communication in two different environments – an outdoor natural environment and a nature-focused indoor environment. The two environments had similar themes, and both offered similar affordances for hands-on activities. Video cameras worn by the children (age 3- 4) and the parents captured their verbal communication during 15-minute explorations in the two environments. An analysis of the recordings showed that the children were significantly more talkative in the natural environment than in the indoor environment and that parent-child connected communication episodes were significantly longer in the natural environment. 

Cameron-Faulkner, T., Melville, J., Gattis, M., (2018). Responding to nature: Natural environments improve parent-child communication. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 59, 9-15.

Rural, low-income mothers consider access to free nature-based recreational opportunities a major contributor to healthy family functioning.

Eighty-five rural low-income mothers participated in interviews focusing on family leisure activities. Participating mothers had one to five children 12 years old or younger. The mothers were not asked directly about their use of family-based nature activities, yet nearly every mother indicated that spending time in nature with their family is something they did to promote physical, psychological, and social health benefits of each family member, as well as the health of the family unit. Walking and playing in parks were two of the most frequently cited examples of their leisure activities.

Izenstark et al. 2016. Rural, low-income mothers’ use of family-based nature activities to promote family health. Journal of Leisure Research, 48(12), 134-155.

Family camping can foster stronger family bonds and connection with nature.

This study was conducted in the Czech Republic with nine families engaged in a two-week camping experience. Responses to a family-completed questionnaire and the perspectives of two researchers participating in the camping experience indicate that family camping can promote positive connections to family, nature, and community.

Jirasek, I., Roberson, D.N., Jiraskova, M., (2017). The impact of families camping together: Opportunities for personal and social development. Leisure Sciences, 39(1).

Much of the literature on nature and children with special needs focuses on older children, but the few published studies involving preschool children suggest that nature-based interventions and nature-rich environments may provide special benefits for young children with differing abilities. The literature also suggests that nature exposure and engagement for children from disadvantaged backgrounds may help reduce health and educational achievement disparities. This suggests that, although nature is beneficial for all children, it may be especially beneficial for those who are at risk for poorer health, mental health, social or educational outcomes as a result of factors associated with limited financial resources. Overall, the research in this domain is “promising.”

More time outdoors during childcare can help preschoolers with ADHD cope with their symptoms.

This mini-review of the literature focused on nature contact and attention in preschool and school-age children. One study focusing specifically on preschoolers found that play in green settings is associated with less severe attention deficits in children with ADHD and that the greener the play area, the stronger the association. The researchers concluded from their review of the evidence that spending time outdoors during preschool may protect young children against developing attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in the future.

Di Carmine F., Berto, R. (2020). Contact with nature can help ADHD children to cope with their symptoms. The state of the evidence and future directions for research. Visions for Sustainability, 14, 1-11.

Children with autism who participated in an outdoor intervention program made impressive gains in verbal and nonverbal communication, imitation, and social reciprocal behavior.

This experimental study included two groups of children(age 3-7) enrolled in seven different special education programs with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in Israel. One group (intervention group; N=30) was randomly chosen to participate in an outdoor adventure program. The other group (control group; N=21) did not participate in the outdoor program. Pre-test measures showed no difference between the two groups in cognitive and adaptive behavior functioning. Post-test results, however, showed a reduction in severity of autism symptoms for the intervention group, while the control group showed the opposite. Differences were noted in the areas of social cognition, social motivation, social communication, and autistic mannerisms, with the largest increase in social communication. 

Zachor, Ditza A., et al. 2017. “The Effectiveness of an Outdoor Adventure Programme for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Controlled Study.”  Medicine and Child Neurology 59(5): 550–556.

Connecting families with nature decreases stress in low-income families.

One of the goals of this experimental study was to determine if park prescriptions will improve stress and other behavioral and health outcomes for parents at a low-income clinic in Oakland, California. All participating parents were counseled on the health benefits of time in nature and were given a map of local parks, a journal for tracking their park visits, and a pedometer. Assessments completed three times during the course of the study showed increased visits to parks and a significant decrease in stress. More park visits per week were associated with significant and incremental decreases in stress. These results applied to parents in two randomly-assigned groups – one with planned group outings; one without planned outings.

Razani et al. 2018. Effect of park prescriptions with and without group visits to parks on stress reduction in low-income parents: SHINE randomized trial. PLOS ONE.

Rural, low-income mothers consider access to free nature-based recreational opportunities a major contributor to healthy family functioning.

Eighty-five rural low-income mothers participated in interviews focusing on family leisure activities. Participating mothers had one to five children 12 years old or younger. The mothers were not asked directly about their use of family-based nature activities, yet nearly every mother indicated that spending time in nature with their family is something they did to promote physical, psychological, and social health benefits of each family member, as well as the health of the family unit. Walking and playing in parks were two of the most frequently cited examples of their leisure activities.

Izenstark et al. 2016. Rural, low-income mothers’ use of family-based nature activities to promote family health. Journal of Leisure Research, 48(12), 134-155.

Young children with disabilities and delays tend to have the same kinds of informal learning opportunities as their typically developing peers and, when outdoors, participate in different types of nature-related activities with a variety of learning opportunities.

Research comparing everyday learning opportunities of children (birth to age 6) with and without special needs found that many of the family and community activities for both groups of children involved different aspects of the natural environment. They also participated in about the same number of everyday family and community activities. Factors influencing child participation and learning in the activities focused primarily on three key characteristics: child interests, the interestingness of the activities, and the role parents and other caregivers played in promoting child participation in the activities.

Dunst, C., (2020). Everyday learning opportunities of young children with and without developmental disabilities or delays. International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 7(3), 23-41.

Nature engagement promotes the overall development of young children, including the acquisition of knowledge and skills across the developmental domains. Nature engagement also promotes young children’s affiliation with the natural world. 

Review of the early childhood environmental education literature presents overwhelmingly strong evidence of positive child development and environmental outcomes.

This systematic review of the literature found that the most frequently reported outcomes of early childhood environmental education (ECEE) programs were in the areas of environmental literacy development, cognitive development, and social and emotional development. Other reported outcomes were in the areas of physical development and language and literacy development. The majority of studies involved three- to six-year-old children in teacher-led, formal educational programs. ECEE practices reported in the reviewed studies led to the identification of nine categories: Time in Nature; Play and Movement; Knowledge and Skill Development; Social Interaction; Creative Arts; Time to Reflect, Think, and Observe; Action Taking; Family Connection; and Personal Connection. Of these, Time in Nature and Play and Movement received the most attention.

Ardoin, N., & Bowers, A. (2020). Early childhood environmental education: A systematic review of the research literature. Educational Research Review, 31, 100353. 

Contact with nature can contribute to the health and well-being of young children, while also promoting affiliation with other species and the natural world.

This comprehensive literature review was conducted on research published from the 1970s to 2015 focusing on ways contact with nature contributes to the health and well-being of children. Some of the studies included in this review focused on preschool-age children. Some of the reported benefits for this age group include longer sleep at night and higher health ratings by the children’s parents, higher levels of physical activity, lower measures of impulsivity, concern for other life forms, and greater awareness of human-nature interdependence. 

Chawla, L., (2015). Benefits of nature contact for children. Journal of Planning Literature, 30(4), 433-452.

Children participating in a nature preschool made impressive gains in curiosity, executive function skills, creative thinking, and resilience.

Four pilot studies were conducted with preschool children to explore the influence of nature preschools on four outcomes relating to both sustainability and early childhood education goals: curiosity, executive function, creative thinking, and resilience.  Assessment results were used to compare growth among nature preschool participants with participants in non-nature preschools. Results showed that the nature preschool group made significantly greater growth than the  non-nature preschool group in the areas of curiosity, creative thinking, and resilience. There were no significant differences between the two groups in executive function, but both groups exceeded what would be expected due to cognitive maturation of typically developing children. 

Ernst, J., Burcak, F., (2019). Young children’s contributions to sustainability: The influence of nature play on curiosity, executive function skills, creative thinking, and resilience. Sustainability, 11(15).

The thoughtful design of outdoor playspaces incorporating natural elements can encourage more diverse play

This study used the Seven Cs framework to install natural, challenging materials in the outdoor play spaces of two preschool childcare centers that were lacking these elements. The Seven Cs framework considers character, context, connectivity, clarity, change, chance, and challenge of the outdoor play environment. Children’s movements after installation tended to be spatially more complex and involved more engagement with elements in the playspace than prior to installation. This research indicates that natural elements in an outdoor playspace can offer more play opportunities than outdoor play spaces without these elements. 

Herrington, S., Brussoni, M., (2015). Beyond physical activity: The importance of play and nature-based play spaces for children’s health and development. Current Obesity Reports, 4, 477-483.

Outdoor activities may be more effective in promoting early child development than indoor activities.

This study investigated the influence of outdoor activities on the development of one- to three-year-old children attending nursery schools in Italy. Developmental assessments conducted on two groups of children – one participating in an outdoor education program; the other participating in a traditional childcare program – showed that the outdoor program group made significantly greater gains in most of the developmental areas (cognitive, emotional, social, fine motor skills) than children in the traditional education group.

Monti et al. 2017. The role of outdoor education in child development in Italian nursery schools. Early Child Development and Care, 189(6), 867-882.

Outdoor education activities seem to offer greater opportunities than indoor activities for promoting young children’s development.

This quasi-experimental study involved 20 teachers evaluating 93 children (age 3-5) attending two different kindergartens in Italy — — one using an outdoor education (OE) approach and the other a more traditional approach. In all the developmental areas assessed, children in the Outdoor Group were perceived by their teachers to be functioning at a higher level than children in the Traditional Group during the first year of the two-year study. These findings — in addition to suggesting that outdoor education activities seem to promote child development more than indoor activities — could indicate that “OE is more effective for younger children compared to older ones”, perhaps due to children in the younger years being more sensitive to the benefits of OE on child development. 

Agostini, F., Minelli, M. & Mandolesi, R. (2018). Outdoor education in Italian kindergartens: How teachers perceive child developmental trajectories. Frontiers in Psychology, 9.

Outdoor play and engagement with nature promote the educational goals of two- and three-year-old children.

Data collected through observations and interviews focusing on the outdoor play experiences of 14 children from a day-care center in Portugal were analyzed through the lens of Portuguese Pedagogical Guidelines for 0–3-year-old children (PG 0–3). These guidelines are framed around three primary goals relating to self-esteem, curiosity, and social skills. Results showed that the outdoor environment supports the development of all three goals. 

Bento, G. & Costa, J. (2018). Outdoor play as a means to achieve educational goals—a case study in a Portuguese day-care group. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 18(4), 289-302.

Family nature-based programs can take a variety of forms, but Family Nature Clubs (FNCs) are probably the most common form. A FNC consists of an organized group of families who get together for regular outings in the natural world. FNCs and other family nature-based programs might be organized by a city, an organization, or one or more families. Parents’ reasons for participating in family-based nature programs include learning about places to go with their children, having fun, having quality time with their children, staying active as a family, and supporting their children’s health and well-being. Participation in family nature-based programs can also promote deeper connections to nature and help families experience a sense of community.

The application of community-based social marketing principles contributed to the success of a family nature club

This paper presents a case study of a family nature club in Columbia, Maryland. During the 9-month study period, the club held 31 outings to nearby natural areas, such as parks, gardens, and wildlife sanctuaries. Multiple sources of data indicated that participating families experienced seven broad categories of significant changes: learning opportunities, nature connections, family connections, social connections, meaningful experiences, enhanced well-being, and reduced barriers to family time in nature. The success of the program was attributed, in part, to the application of some community-based social marketing principles, such as (1) making desired behaviors as easy as possible, (2) offering incentives, (3) highlighting social norms and social modeling, and (4) providing educational activities.

D’Amore, C., Chawla, L., (2017). Many children in the woods: Applying principles of community-based social marketing to a family nature club. Ecopsychology, 9(4), 232-240.

Families participating in a family nature play program experienced enhanced interpersonal relationships, connections to nature, and emotional wellness.

This evaluation of a nature play program for young children (birth to five years of age) and their parents revealed three major outcome categories: enhanced interpersonal relationships, connections to nature, and emotional wellness. The nature-play sessions were offered free of charge in a school setting and included the presence of a therapy dog.

Ward, T., Goldingay, S., Parson, J., (2019). Evaluating a supported nature play programme, parents’ perspectives. Early Child Development and Care, 189(2), 270-283.

More interaction between children and nature occurs in smaller group settings and less organized activities.

This study investigated how children interact with nature through organized events with varying degrees of adult management and planning. The study involved qualitative fieldwork in events organized by the Norwegian nationwide Children’s Trekking Club, a program designed to help children (0-12 years old) gain nature experiences and feel the joy of nature. Data collection involved observation of the participants during 13 different Children’s Trekking Club events. This research showed that “children come closer to each other and to the natural environment in events where there are fewer participants, in which they stay in one place for a long time and where there are not too many planned activities”.

Skar, M., Gundersen, V., O’Brien, L., (2016). How to engage children with nature: Why not just let them play?. Children’s Geographies, 14(5), 527-540.

Developing natural playspaces for young children is one way to promote their holistic development and their connectedness to nature. A more effective way may be to involve children in the planning and development process. The studies in this section recognize young children’s right and ability to be actively involved in decision making about issues impacting them. Some of the studies use a participatory design where research is done by children rather than on children. Other studies focus more on children’s preferences and ways of interacting with the natural environment. Important implications from this body of research include the need to recognize young children’s ability to contribute in a meaningful way to the design of playspaces that meet their developmental needs. Implications also include shifting pedagogical practices from a focus on learning in and about environments to providing opportunities for young children to actively participate in sustainable practices.

The active participation of children, parents and teachers can make an important contribution to improving the quality of preschool outdoor environments

Seven preschools in the Basque Country (Spain) participated in this study focusing on how the quality of preschool outdoor environments can be improved through a participatory process involving children, parents and teachers. A total of 1001 children (age 3 – 6) who were attending the participating preschools took photos, drew pictures, and talked about what they would like to have in their school’s outdoor playspace. Their wishes included natural resources (such as sand and water) and places where they could seek shelter and where their motor skills would be challenged. Parents and teachers provided feedback on the children’s ideas and shared observations about the impact of the changes once they were implemented. A quality rating scale showed that the changes resulted in statistically significant improvements to the quality of the outdoor environments of the participating schools.

Muela, A., Larrea, I., Miranda, N., Barandiaran, A., (2019). Improving the quality of preschool outdoor environments: Getting children involved. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 27(3), 385-396.

Engaging young children as co-researchers recognizes their agency and right to be involved in matters of relevance to them

This paper presents four different methods that can be used to promote children’s agency in early childhood environmental education research.  These methods include Art Making, Role Playing, Building a Model, and Book Making. These methods were used with young children in a forest setting. In addition to providing “a backdrop for children to reflect on the beauty and awe of nature”, this setting also gave children an opportunity to interact with and incorporate aspects of nature into their artistic creations. Additionally, children’s role play in/with nature reflected their interests and understandings of their local ecology.

Green, C., (2017). Four methods for engaging young children as environmental education researchers. International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 5(1).

Children’s “dream” playspaces are outdoor environments with opportunities for risky play and access to natural materials

Researchers engaged 110 children in making drawings of an ideal playground in a local shopping center in Sydney, Australia.  This playspace was in a building with one side open to the outdoors. Forty-four drawings were completed by preschool-aged children (age 3-5); sixty-six by primary-age children (age 5-9). While the children were not coached to include the outdoor space, all of their drawings depicted the outdoors and featured natural and other-than-human elements. Eight categories of elements were identified: speed and risk, active play, animals, natural elements/flowers, water, games, buildings, and place with people or where you feel good. The two most frequent features in all the drawings were (1) play equipment where the children could engage in risky play and (2) active playspaces and structures. 

Ward, K., (2018). What’s in a dream? Natural elements, risk and loose parts in children’s dream playspace drawings. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 43(1), 34-42.

Play settings with a combination of natural and manufactured elements are highly preferred by young children.

The context for this study was a North Carolina preschool with three different types of play areas: natural, mixed, and manufactured. Photo preferences and semi-structured interviews were used to investigate children’s perception of preferred play settings. Observations of children (age 4-5) in the playspaces were also conducted to investigate the types of play behaviors in each setting. While cognitive play behaviors were observed in all three settings, there were differences in how the settings stimulated such play. The natural setting seemed to promote higher levels of cognitive play, as it was in this area that different dramatic play themes were most evident. The manufactured setting primarily supported functional play, while the mixed setting offered the most opportunities for different types of play. The area most preferred by the children was the mixed play setting which incorporated both natural and manufactured elements.

Zamani, Z., (2017). Young children’s preferences: What stimulates children’s cognitive play in outdoor preschools?. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 15(3), 256-274.

Focusing on child-nature interaction patterns can expand our understanding of children’s engagement with the natural world.

Data for this study was based on filmed observations conducted at a nature preschool located at the University of Washington Botanic Gardens. Seven keystone child-nature interaction patterns were identified: using one’s body vigorously in nature, striking wood on wood, constructing shelter, being in solitude in nature, lying on earth, cohabiting with a wild animal, and being outside in weather.

Kahn, P.H., Weiss, T., Harrington, K., (2018). Modeling child-nature interaction in a nature preschool: A proof of concept. Frontiers in Psychology, 9.

Young children, with support of early childhood educators, have the ability to be meaningfully involved in ecologically sustainable practices

This field report describes two early childhood education for sustainability projects – one in Australia and one in the United States – in which preschool children played an active role in making changes critical to the regeneration of natural environments. In each case, the children demonstrated empathy for non-human species and viewed themselves as capable of making meaningful contributions to the larger community. Children, acting upon these dispositions and capacities, engaged in activities promoting sustainable practices beyond their individual classrooms.

Konerman, R., Elliott, S., Pugh, R., Luthy, T., Carr, V., (2021). Children’s agency and action in nature preschool: A tale of two programs. Children, Youth and Environments, 31(2), 139-150.

While there’s a growing awareness of the benefits of nature for children, certain barriers limit their access to nature. Identified barriers include safety and weather concerns, costs, and negative attitudes.

Narratives of exclusion serve as barriers to engagement with nature for infants and toddlers at ECEC settings

A search of the academic literature for this review confirmed researchers’ suspicion that the research focusing on outdoor provision for infants and toddlers in early childhood education and care (ECEC) settings is very limited. While the search was international in scope and no limit was placed on date of publication, only 21 papers were identified. Four themes emerged from an analysis of these papers: the outdoors as a space to be physically active; the outdoors as a risky space; providing an appropriate outdoor environment; and the role of the practitioner. Concerns relating to “narratives of exclusion” were identified in each of these categories. 

Kemp, K., Josephidou, J., (2021). Babies and toddlers outdoors: a narrative review of the literature on provision for under twos in ECEC settings. Early Years.

Barriers to young children’s engagement with nature at some preschools include parent and educator attitudes and funding and cost issues.

Data for this study was based on government document review, 25 stakeholder interviews, and 7 site visits to outdoor playspaces in Scotland. The review of the documents revealed a shift by the Scottish government away from risk aversion to an appreciation of risk benefit analysis. Information gathered from interviews and site visits revealed a number of barriers to implementation of an outdoor play policy for young children, including parent and educator attitudes and funding and cost issues.

Perlman, M., Howe, N., Bergeron, C., (2020). How and why did outdoor play become a central focus of Scottish early learning and care policy. Canadian Journal of Environmental Education, 23(2), 46-66.

Individual and environmental barriers may limit caregivers’ ability to access their urban greenspaces

Barriers to more frequent use of parks noted by primary caregivers in low-income neighborhoods include (1) “dislike of the natural environment” (due to such elements as bugs, wild animals, and fear of sunburn), (2) lack of access and funds to travel to desirable outdoor spaces, (3) medical concerns (e.g. flair up of chronic conditions),  (4) weather conditions, and (5) safety and maintenance concerns. 

Sefcik, J.S., Kondo, M.C., Klusaritz, H., Sarantschin, E., Solomon, S., Roepke, A., South, E.C., Jacoby, S.F., (2019). Perceptions of nature and access to green space in four urban neighborhoods. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(13).

1. Encourage children to become agents of change for the environment by addressing issues in their local community. (Bascope et al. 2019; Bautista et al. 2018; Boyd 2019; Hedefalk et al. 2015; Konerman et al. 2021)
2. Use pro-environmental practices (Bascope et al. 2019)  to promote a sustainability mindset in young children.
3. Integrate environmental education and education for sustainability into early childhood education. (Ardoin & Bowers 2020)
4. Use place-based learning to help young children develop a sustainability perspective (Boyd 2019)
5. Encourage young children to take the perspective of other living things. (Acar & Torquati 2015)
6. Attend to both the quality and quantity of time in nature to promote connectedness to nature. (Beery et al. 2020)
7. Engage young children as co-researchers in environmental education research. (Green 2017)

1. Increase children’s opportunities for child-led nature-based play to promote young children’s physical activity, cognitive functioning, enhanced forms of play, creativity, and other areas of child development (Dankiw et al. 2020).
2. Place more emphasis on free play than planned activities (Skar et al. 2016).
3. Encourage risk taking in self-directed nature play. (Brussoni et al. 2017; LeMasters & Vandermaas-Peeler 2021)
4. Encourage nature play by providing a wide variety of natural materials and other types of open-ended loose parts. (Storli et al. 2020)

1. Encourage family-based nature activities, including the development of park prescription programs (Razani 2018), family nature clubs (D’Amore & Chawla, 2017) and family nature play programs (Ward et al, 2019).
2. Generally, limit outdoor family-based events to small groups and plan for less organized activities. (Skar et al, 2016).
3. Encourage family participation in nature-based activities by making desired behaviors as easy as possible, offering incentives, highlighting social norms and social modeling, and providing educational activities. (D’Amore & Chawla 2017)
4. Be sensitive to potential barriers to family engagement, such as costs, time issues, transportation, weather concerns, and negative attitudes. (Perlman et al. 2020; Sefcik et al. 2019)

1. Green the outdoor environments, especially the outdoor playspaces, of childcare and preschool settings. (Puhakka et al. 2019).
2. When designing and developing outdoor playspaces for young children, make access to natural elements a priority (Morrissey et al. 2017) and provide opportunities for risky play. (Ward 2018)
3. Actively involve young children in the design and creation of green spaces (Muela 2019; Ward 2018).
4. Design and build playspaces with children’s preferences and key interaction patterns in mind (Kahn et al. 2018; Ward 2018; Zamani 2017)
5. Include a variety of loose parts and shielded places in playspaces for young children. (Lerstrup & Refshauge 2016)
6. Add biodiverse elements to a play yard to promote exploration, creativity, and positive environmental relationships (Puhakka et al. 2019) and to enhance preschoolers’ immune systems (Roslund et al. 2020).
7. Use both natural and manufactured elements to increase opportunities for risky play (Kleppe 2018) and to encourage a wider variety of play (Zamani 2017).